方法论说明
执教三年多,我是一个注重科学方法,更注重能力提升的老师,我从不相信读不懂文章就能得高分。想在新托福阅读中取得高分,没有技巧,但是有方法,科学有效的方法是可以取得事半功倍的效果的。新托福官方指南第四版给我们列出了十大题型及考试频率:
1)细节题——————每篇3~6题
2)排除题——————每篇0~2题
3)指代题——————每篇0~2题
4)修辞目的题————每篇0~2题
5)推理题——————每篇0~3题
6)词汇题——————每篇3~5题
7)句子简化题————每篇0~1题
8)句子插入题————每篇0~1题
9)文章内容小结题——每篇1题
10)表格题——————每篇1题
在这十大题型中,指代题和表格题已经逐渐退出考试,我在这里不再详细介绍。对词汇题,我的策略是背熟已经考过的词汇题,利用现有的TPO资料消除自己的障碍,这种题型便可以迎刃而解,因此也不在这里详细介绍。
下面我们就来看看其他题型应该如何解答:
首先说说细节题。对于这种题型,任何老师都会讲到定位方法,主要是提取题干信息的关键词(核心的名词、动词或形容词)、标志词(专有名词、带特殊符号的词、数字年代类名词)。如果考生只利用这两种词去定位,可以解决一些简单的题目,通过词直接对应答案。但是现在的阅读细节题难度提高了,不仅仅考查对单句的理解,更加侧重考查考生对文章和段落的总体把握及对句子之间关系的理解。在这样的考试趋势下,考生如果还是只利用词进行定位,那么往往无法直接找到题目答案。
所以对细节题的定位,我要求大家从原来关注关键词及标志词转向关注问题本身,因为只有弄清楚了问题本身,我们才能迅速准确地找到正确答案。关注问题本身需要我们不只读含有题干关键词和标志词的句子,而且要从段落第一句开始读,这种做题方法虽然看起来似乎有些浪费时间,其实它不仅可以迅速排除和题目无关的句子,找到答案,同时也有助于把握段落主旨(因为段落主旨句常常是第一句),从而可以帮助我们做对文章总结题。
第二个是排除题,这种题型相对简单,只需要在文章当中找到三个对应选项,加以排除,剩下的就是正确的答案了。对于这种题型,我建议大家第一步仍然是利用题干信息定位,方法和细节题定位一样,然后逐一排除文章提到的选项。
再来说说修辞目的题,这种题型主要考查关系,包括句内关系、段落内部句间关系、段落关系和某个段落与整篇文章的关系。其常见的问题形式包括:
① The author uses X as an example of...
② Why does the author mention X?
③ Which of the following best describes the way paragraph X is organized?
④ In paragraph X, the author's primary purpose is to...
⑤ Which of the following best describes the relationship between Paragraph X and Paragraph Y?
下面我们分别讲解每种问题形式的做题方法:
第一种问题形式:The author uses X as an example of...
这是问例子的作用,做题思路是找到这个例子支持的观点,观点通常在例子的前一句。
同样,如果题干问数据的作用、实验的作用或引言的作用,我们的解题思路也是一样的,因为例子、数据和引言都是支持性细节,作用都是为了支持观点。
第二种问题形式:Why does the author mention X?
如果X代表的是单词或短语,我们需要先判断句内关系,如果找不到句内关系或是没有对应的答案,再去关注句间关系,去前后句找答案。
如果X代表的是一句话,我们需要先理解该句的意思,然后关注句间关系,也就是该句和其他句子的关系,或者该句和段落主旨以及文章主旨的关系。
第三种问题形式:Which of the following best describes the way paragraph X is organized?
这是问段落结构,其实段落和文章的展开方式是一样的,主要有现象解释、比较对比、按时间顺序展开、总分(概述+ 细节)、分类。
具体是哪种段落结构,需要我们在实际做题的时候分析段落内部句子之间的关系。
第四种问题形式:In paragraph X, the author's primary purpose is to...
这是问段落主旨,也就是某一段落当中作者提出的主要观点,通常在段落的第一句提出。
第五种问题形式:Which of the following best describes the relationship between Paragraph X and Paragraph Y?
这是问段落之间的关系,我们解答这个问题之前需要明确两段的段落主旨,再判断两段之间的关系。
推理题的做题步骤是定位和推理,定位方法和细节题一致。我们重点讲解推理方法,主要有两个推理方向:正向推理和反向推理。正向推理具体来说是从整体推到部分,从部分推到整体,从原因推到结果,从结果推到原因。反向推理具体来说有时间先后取反、地点取反、对立面取反。
我们举一个从整体推到部分的例子,OG中The Origins of Cetaceans的第8题:
Paragraph 4: Another major discovery was made in Egypt in 1989. Several skeletons of another early whale, Basilosaurus, were found in sediments left by the Tethys Sea and now exposed in the Sahara desert. This whale lived around 40 million years ago, 12 million years after Pakicetus. Many incomplete skeletons were found but they included, for the first time in an archaeocyte, a complete hind leg that features a foot with three tiny toes. Such legs would have been far too small to have supported the 50-foot-long Basilosaurus on land. Basilosaurus was undoubtedly a fully marine whale with possibly nonfunctional, or vestigial, hind legs.
8. It can be inferred that Basilosaurus bred and gave birth in which of the following locations?
○ On land.
○ Both on land and at sea.
○ In shallow water.
○ In a marine environment.
这道题的答案是D。问题:“可以推测出Basilosaurus 在以下哪个地方出生和繁殖?”该段的最后一句话:“Basilosaurus was undoubtedly a fully marine whale with possibly nonfunctional, or vestigial, hind legs.”(Basilosaurus 无疑是完全水生的鲸鱼,它们的后肢已经不起任何作用,或者说已经退化。)段落中虽然没有明确指出Basilosaurus 的出生地点,但是我们知道它一生都在海洋中生活,所以推测出它的出生地也是海洋,因此选D。
我们再举一个反向推理的例子,TPO20 的第一篇Westward Migration 的第1 题:
Paragraph 1: The story of the westward movement of population in the United States is, in the main, the story of the expansion of American agriculture—of the development of new areas for the raising of livestock and the cultivation of wheat, corn, tobacco, and cotton. After 1815 improved transportation enabled more and more western farmers to escape a selfsufficient way of life and enter a national market economy. During periods when commodity prices were high, the rate of westward migration increased spectacularly.“ Old America seemed to be breaking up and moving westward,” observed an English visitor in 1817, during the first great wave of migration. Emigration to the West reached a peak in the 1830's. Whereas in 1810 only a seventh of the American people lived west of the Appalachian Mountains, by 1840 more than a third lived there.
1. What can be inferred from paragraph 1 about western farmers prior to 1815?
○ They had limited their crop production to wheat, corn, tobacco, and cotton.
○ They were able to sell their produce at high prices.
○ They had not been successful in raising cattle.
○ They did not operate in a national market economy.
该题答案是D,根据“After 1815 improved transportation enabled more and more western farmers to escape a self-sufficient way of life and enter a national market economy. ”(在1815年以后,交通条件的改善使得越来越多的西部农民能够摆脱自给自足的生活方式,并且进入国家市场经济。)由此可知,1815 年之前,西部农民还未进入国家市场经济,因此选D。这就是时间点前后取反的做题思路。
对于句子简化题,很多考生熟知的方法是根据逻辑排除,这种方法针对某些题目很有效果,但是也有弊端:原句可能会有隐形的逻辑关系,无法一眼识别出来,这个时候如果我们再利用逻辑排除方法的话,很有可能出错。所以做句子简化题时,我建议大家优先关注句子的主要意思,利用主要意思排除错误选项。把握主要意思的方法是关注原句的主干信息,在判断时尤其重视原句中动词和选项的对应关系。
以TPO3 的第三篇The Long-Term Stability of Ecosystems的第11题为例:
Paragraph 7: Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes not from diversity but from the“ patchiness” of the environment, an environment that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform. A local population that goes extinct is quickly replaced by immigrants from an adjacent community. Even if the new population is of a different species, it can approximately fill the niche vacated by the extinct population and keep the food web intact.
11. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incurred choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
○ Ecologists now think that the stability of an environment is a result of diversity rather than patchiness.
○ Patchy environments that vary from place to place do not often have high species diversity.
○ Uniform environments cannot be climax communities because they do not support as many types of organisms as patchy environments.
○ A patchy environment is thought to increase stability because it is able to support a wide variety of organisms.
通过分析原句,可以提取出主干信息:“The relative long-term stability of climax communities comes from the‘ patchiness' of the environment.”(顶级群落的长期相对稳定性来自于环境的补缀性。)由此可知,这句话的主要意思是稳定性源于环境的补缀性,根据主要意思判断选项。
选项A的主干是“stability is a result of diversity”(稳定性来自多样性),主要意思和原句不符,排除。
选项B的主干是“Patchy environments do not often have high species diversity”(补缀的环境通常不具有高度的物种多样性),主要意思和原句不符,排除。
选项C的主干是“Uniform environments cannot be climax communities”(统一的环境不可能是顶级群落),主要意思和原句不符,排除。
选项D的主干是“A patchy environment is thought to increase stability”(具有补缀性的环境可以增强稳定性),主要意思和原句相符,因此答案就是D。
以上就是利用原句的主要意思排除错误选项的解题思路。大家可以看到,在判断句子的主要意思时,如果该句有状语从句,我们可以优先读主句。
句子插入题也叫作句子填空题,这种题主要考查三种衔接关系:语法衔接、逻辑衔接和词汇衔接。
语法衔接主要关乎两种代词:指示代词(this, these, such, it)和人称代词(he, they)。语法衔接是一种紧密的衔接,也就是说待填入句子里的代词在前一句中可以找到,因此这种线索是有助于迅速找到答案的。
而逻辑衔接则考查句子之间的语意关系,常考的五种逻辑关系是因果关系、转折关系、分类关系、递进关系、举例关系。我们需要关注待填入句子中有没有相关的逻辑词,比如说 as a result, therefore, but, for example 等。
词汇衔接的意思是通过词汇手段把句子联系起来,常考的有三种词汇衔接手段:重复核心词、同义词替换、概括词衔接。
我们举一个概括词衔接的例子,TPO7第三篇 Agriculture, Iron, and the Bantu Peoples 的第13题:
Paragraph 6: The diffusion of agriculture and later of iron was accompanied by a great movement of people who may have carried these innovations. These people probably originated in eastern Nigeria. ■ Their migration may have been set in motion by an increase in population caused by a movement of peoples fleeing the desiccation, or drying up, of the Sahara. ■ They spoke a language, proto-Bantu (“Bantu” means“ the people”), which is the parent tongue of a language of a large number of Bantu languages still spoken throughout sub-Sahara Africa. Why and how these people spread out into central and southern Africa remains a mystery, but archaeologists believe that their iron weapons allowed them to conquer their hunting-gathering opponents, who still used stone implements. ■ Still, the process is uncertain, and peaceful migration—or simply rapid demographic growth—may have also caused the Bantu explosion. ■
13. Look at the four squares ■ that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.
These people had a significant linguistic impact on the continent as well.
Where would the sentence best fit?
待填入句子的意思是:“ 这些人对大陆也有重大的语言影响。” 根据这句话的概括词“significant linguistic impact”( 重大的语言影响)可以判断出下一句的内容是对这个语言影响的解释,符合这个要求的是第二个方块,因为第二个方块后提到“They spoke a language”(他们说一种语言),而其他方块后面都没有解释语言影响,因此答案是第二个方块。这就是利用概括词衔接手段来做题的方法。
最后讲解文章内容小结题。这种题目正确答案的特点是解释文章的主要观点,常见的错误选项有文章中未提到的信息、和文章说法不一致的信息以及细节信息。
在把握文章的主要观点时,可以结合五种常见的文章结构:现象解释、比较对比、按时间顺序展开、总分(概述+细节)、分类。
第一种文章结构:现象解释,正确答案对应的是针对某个现象提出的原因或理论。
第二种文章结构:比较对比,正确答案对应的是比较或对比方法的特点和差异。
第三种文章结构:按时间顺序展开,正确答案对应的是在新时间点的新发现或新进展。
第四种文章结构:总分,正确答案对应的是支持总论点的各个分论点。
第五种文章结构:分类,正确答案对应的是各个类别的特点和差异。
做这种题时还有一个小技巧,就是看所给出的引导句。
比如说:TPO15的Mass Extinctions给出的句子是:“There have been many attempts to explain the causes of mass extinctions.”通过该句我们可以判断出这篇文章的主旨是大灭绝的原因,当我们在判断选项时,应该选择能够解释大灭绝原因的选项。
新托福阅读是可以拿高分甚至满分的,但绝不能投机取巧,考生只有在提升基础的同时,结合科学有效的做题方法,才能攻破新托福阅读这项难关,顺利到达梦想的彼岸。
编者
2015年1月