Section II
Text A: Body Language

Part 1　Power of Words

Core Words

①　abrasive [ə'breɪsɪv] adj.

rude or unkind

synonym　　crude; rough

antonym　　agreeable; smooth

word family　　abrasion; abrade

Example 1　She was a tough girl with rather an abrasive manner.

Example 2　She had abrasions to her wrists where the abrasive rope had scraped her.

②　assent [ə'sent] n.

agreement with a statement or proposal to do something

synonym　　accept; grant

antonym　　dissent

word family　　assentient

Example 1　The raising of taxes or the dispensing of laws without the assent of Parliament was declared to be illegal.

Example 2　The monarch gave formal assent to any legislative measure approved by the two houses.

③　assimilate [ə'sɪmɪleɪt] vt./vi. (assimilated/assimilated/assimilating)

to take into the mind and thoroughly understand; to take in and utilize as nourishment; to absorb into the cultural tradition of a population or group; to make similar

synonym　　absorb

antonym　　dissimilate

word family　　assimilative; assimilation; assimilatory; assimilator

related phrase　　assimilate into

Example 1　It will take time to assimilate all these facts.

Example 2　Refugees find it difficult to become assimilated into the community.

④　congenital [kən'dʒenɪtəl] adj.

present at birth but not necessarily hereditary; acquired during fetal development

synonym　　innate; natural

antonym　　accidental; external

word family　　congenitally

Example 1　He has been suffering from congenital heart disease since borned.

Example 2　We suspect he has a congenital defect.

⑤　depict [dɪ'pɪkt] v. (depicted/depicted/depicting)

give a description of

synonym　　describe; portray; interpret

word family　　depiction; depictive

related phrase　　depict as; depict on

Example 1　Back then, before the current war, Ferzat never dared to depict specific people in his cartoons.

Example 2　Color words are usually used to depict the colors of various objects in the world.

⑥　disloyalty [dɪs'lɒɪ(ə)ltɪ] n.

lacking in loyalty; also showing an absence of allegiance, devotion, obligation, faith, or support

synonym　　unfaithfulness; faithlessness

antonym　　allegiance; loyalty

word family　　disloyal; disloyally

Example 1　He was disappointed to learn of their disloyalty.

Example 2　Charges has already been made against certain officials suspected of disloyalty.

⑦　lateral ['lætərəl] adj.

relating to the sides of something, or movement to the side

synonym　　side

antonym　　top; mesial

word family　　lateral thinking; lateral movement

Example 1　At best, the typical employee can expect a few promotions and a number of lateral moves.

Example 2　Lateral thinking has helped him to advance his new theory which seemed to have reached a dead end.

⑧　refute [rɪ'fjuːt] v. (refuted/refuted/refuting)

to prove that a statement or idea is not correct

synonym　　controvert; repudiate

antonym　　embrace; accept

word family　　refutable; refutation; refutal

Example 1　The accusation has been wholly refuted by an in-depth analysis of the evidence.

Example 2　There is no reason to refute this argument.

⑨　remorse [rɪ'mɔːs] n.

a strong feeling of being sorry that you have done something very bad

synonym　　self-reproach; contrition

antonym　　complacency; content

word family　　remorseful; remorseless

Example 1　Immediately overcome by remorse, I lowered him to the floor and tried to apologize.

Example 2　The woman sounded so nice, McKee felt a twinge of remorse at what he had done to her family.

⑩　scorn [skɔːn] n./vt./vi. (scorned/scorned/scorning)

a feeling that someone or something is not worthy of any respect or approval; harsh criticism that shows a lack of respect or approval for someone or something; to show that you think (someone or something) is not worthy of respect or approval: to feel or express scorn for (someone or something); to refuse or reject (someone or something that you do not think is worthy of respect or approval)

synonym　　contempt; despise; disdain

antonym　　admire; honor; respect

word family　　scorner; scornful; scornfully

related phrase　　pour scorn on somebody/something; scorn for

Example 1　He felt scorn for his working-class parents.

Example 2　He scorns anyone who earns less money than he does.

⑪　sluggish ['slʌgɪʃ] adj.

averse to activity or exertion; slow to respond (as to stimulation or treatment); markedly slow in movement, flow, or growth; economically inactive or slow

synonym　　inert; inactive

antonym　　fast; active

word family　　sluggishly; sluggishness

Example 1　If you don't eat breakfast, you'll feel tired and sluggish.

Example 2　Sales were sluggish in the first half of the year.

⑫　spirited ['spɪrɪtɪd] adj.

full of energy, animation, or courage

synonym　　animated; mettlesome

antonym　　spiritless; heartless

word family　　spiritedly; spiritedness

related phrase　　spirited defense/debate/discussion

Example 1　Anne is a spirited girl who wants to become a writer.

Example 2　This television programme provoked a spirited debate.

⑬　transient ['trænzɪənt] adj.

continuing only for a short time

synonym　　ephemeral; transitory

antonym　　lasting; permanent

word family　　transience

Example 1　Their happiness was transient, for the war broke out soon after they got married.

Example 2　The transient nature of speech does not permit editing of the speech signal.

Words for Self-study

Please find and memorize the meanings and usages of the following words with the help of dictionaries, online resources and other references.

amidst　　archaeological　　baton　　brazen　　Bulgaria

commotion　　cornerstone　　crass　　critique　　dissertation

exhort　　fabricated　　hallmark　　inmate　　mimicry

orator　　pivot　　pronoun　　racetrack　　spank

squawk　　strew　　testify　　vigor

Part 2　Text
Body Language

When we form our thoughts into speech, some of it leaks through our gestures, revealing intricacies of language, ethnicity and assimilation.

Two Jews and an Englishman are crossing the ocean on a ship. The Jews, who can't swim, start arguing with each other about what they should do if it sinks. As they argue, they make gestures(gesticulate) with such vigor that the Englishman backs away to avoid injury. Suddenly, the boat begins to sink. All the passengers except for the Jews, who are too wrapped up in their argument to notice, jump overboard. After a long, exhausting swim, the Englishman finally reaches the shore. He is amazed to find the two Jews there, happily waving him in. Astonished, he asks them how they got there. "We have no idea," says one of them. "We just kept on talking in the water."

A version of this joke appears in a 1941 dissertation on "the gestural behavior of eastern Jews and southern Italians in New York City, living under similar as well as different environmental conditions". The study was written by David Efron, who grew up in an orthodox Jewish home in Argentina and arrived in New York for graduate study in the 1930s. By his own account, when he spoke Spanish, he gestured with "the effervescence and fluidity of those of a good many Argentinians". When he spoke Yiddish, his gestures were more "tense, jerky, and confined". He sometimes combined the two styles, as when "discussing a Jewish matter in Spanish, and vice versa". After living in the United States for a few years, he found his gestures becoming "in general less expansive, even when speaking in his native tongue". His gestural identity was further complicated by the "symbolic Italian movements" he had picked up from Argentine-Italians and reinforced on a trip through Italy. But no matter what language he spoke, he proved to be "annifty (adroit) table-pounder".

Efron was one of the last students of the famous anthropologist Franz Boas¹. Boas spent his career arguing that it was culture and environment, not biological race, that accounted for differences in how groups of people behaved. Efron's study was designed as a challenge to the impressionistic (subjective) explanations of gesture that the race theorists of the 1930s were passing off as science. One claimed that Jews of mixed race who no longer had other Jewish physical traits could still be identified by their gestures. Another categorized gesture by race: Nordic gestures were restrained; Mediterranean gestures were playful; the gestures of the Phalic race (as in the German region of Westphalia) reminded one of a fleeing chicken; Italian gestures were explained with reference to hot blood, light bones, and poor impulse control.

Efron observed the conversations of 1, 250 Lithuanian and Polish Jews and 1, 100 Italians from Naples² and Sicily in and around New York City. In each group, about half were recent immigrants and half were "assimilated". They were observed in a range of settings: parks, markets, social clubs, schools, universities, Catskills resorts, Adirondack hotels, and the Saratoga racetrack. He recorded five thousand feet of film and, with an artist, produced two thousand sketches of spontaneous gestures.

The results paint a picture of a stereotype, but a lovingly detailed and specific one. According to Efron, Jews used a limited range of motion, mostly from the elbow. Their movements were more angular (angulate), jabbing, intricate, and vertical than those of the Italians, who used larger, smoother, more curved lateral gestures which pivoted from the shoulder. Jews tended to use one hand, Italians both. Italians touched their own bodies, Jews touched the bodies of their conversational partners. Efron describes with delight an episode he witnessed where one man grabbed the arm of his conversational partner (interlocutor) and started gesturing with it. That man, becoming annoyed, finally grabbed the first man's wrist in retaliation and "started exhorting(admonishing) him back with his own hand". Jews also did more gesturing with objects such as pencils or, in one case, a meatball on the end of a fork. Italians used less finger and wrist movement but more repetition. They also had a vocabulary of symbolic gestures with standard meanings—from "I know more than you think I do." to "I'll sew your lips together." to "I'll poke your eyes out."—that could be understood without any speech at all.

The main result, the one the study was designed to find, was that as the Jews and Italians assimilated, they began to gesture alike. When Efron tested a group of students at a high school in Little Italy on the meanings of the symbolic gestures used by the unassimilated Italians, less than half of their judgments were correct. He came to the anticipated conclusion: as Jews and Italians became American, so did their gestures.

The conclusion was unsurprising; it was Efron's method that made his study important. In order to make his study empirical, Efron had to develop a way to break gestures down into countable units so that he could explain differences with respect to those units. There were "hallmark" (emblems) that could be understood without speech, those of the Italian "I'll poke your eyes out." variety. There were also gestures that had no meaning independent from speech: "physiographics" and "kinetographics" that trace out the objects or actions under discussion, "ideographics" that trace out the metaphorical pathways of the speaker's thoughts, and "batons" that beat out the rhythm of speech.

The gestures of the subjects that Efron observed didn't differ only by the qualities of how they moved or how many hands they used or who they touched. They also seemed functionally different. Italians used emblems; Jews didn't. Italians sometimes used physiographics, depicting the size and shape of the things they talked about; Jews used ideographics, depicting features of the discourse itself. When Jews pointed a thumb toward the ground and then scooped it upward quickly, they were highlighting the crux of the discourse, physically and metaphorically digging it out for consideration. When they traced an angular zigzag with a finger, they were outlining the back and forth of an argument, linking one prominent (salient) bit to the next.

After he published his study on the gestures of New York immigrants, Efron left academia for a career advocating for workers' rights at the UN's International Labor Organization. But his dissertation went on to become a foundation for the field of "gesture studies"—a label applied to the activities of various psychologists, anthropologists, and linguists who look at the things people do with their hands while they speak. Efron not only laid the cornerstone (groundwork) for a more systematic method of studying gestures, he introduced the idea that gesture was not a companion to speaking, but a product of it.

In his Institutes of Oratory, the first-century orator (rhetorician) Quintilian³ says the hands "almost equal in expression the powers of language itself", and he praises them for all the things they can do:

"With our hands we ask, promise, call persons to us and send them away, threaten, solicit(supplicate), intimate dislike or fear; with our hands we signify joy, grief, doubt, acknowledgement, remorse (penitence), and indicate measure, quantity, number, and time. Have not our hands the power of galvanizing (inciting), of restraining, of imploring (beseeching), of testifying assent (approbation), admiration, and shame? Do they not, in pointing out places and persons, discharge the duty of adverbs and pronouns? So that, amidst the great diversity of tongues strewing(pervading) all nations and people, the language of the hands appears to be a language common to all men."

Quintilian implies, like many after him, that gesture is some kind of universal natural language. It was a language, however, that needed to be cultivated and practiced. Since gesture represented thoughts, or, as Cicero⁴ said, "the motions of the soul", orators had to learn how to marshal their gestures to put their thoughts in the best light. Quintilian laid out specific dos and don'ts. He tells us, for example, that when "the middle finger is drawn in toward the thumb, the other three fingers being open", this is an appropriate gesture to use during the introduction to a speech, provided it is "moderately exerted and with a gentle movement of the hand in either direction". It can add confirmation when stating the facts if the movement is "somewhat more decided", but "in critique(invective) and refutation, it must be spirited and impressive". It should never, however, be aimed sideways so that the middle finger points toward the left shoulder.

For centuries, discussion of gesture was couched in terms of what was proper or effective. There were guides for orators, preachers, and actors, and rulebooks for courtly behavior that laid down standards for gesture. In the seventeenth century there were even dictionaries of gesture: Giovanni Bonifacio's The Art of Signs (1616) and John Bulwer's⁵ Chirologia and Chironomia (1644)list hundreds of gestures, citing passages from the classics on their meanings. According to Bulwer, we know that "to spank (smite) suddenly on the left hand with the right" signifies anger because Seneca used it in a description of an angry man.

Most guides to gesture advised against mere mimicry or acting out the content of the speech they accompanied. Quintilian believed the gestures of an orator "should be suited rather to his sense than to his words". The purpose of gesture was not to repeat information, but to add it. Indeed this is how even those untrained in oratorical gesture seem to use it. We use gestures to show how the events we narrate happened, and to point to the particular things or people we talk about. The gestures of the Italians Efron studied added information about the physical qualities of the things they talked about as well as their attitudes toward them. The gestures of the Jews he studied illustrated the connections they were making between ideas and their relative importance. Gesture can communicate a layer of meaning missing from the speech.

But it would be wrong to say that the reason we gesture is to communicate. Almost anything can communicate—the clothes you wear, the flowers you send, the way you flutter your fan or fold your handkerchief. Gestures communicate too, but they are much more intimately tied to the act of speaking. They are not a language in themselves, but they are a complement to language, a partner with language, a byproduct of language. Subsequent research in the field that Efron founded has failed to find a culture that does not gesture during speech. Not everyone does it as colorfully as the Italians and Jews, but everyone does it, even Englishmen. While aspects of the way we do it are learned or culturally conditioned, and while some of our gestures are intentionally formed with the goal of communication in mind, imitation can't explain why congenitally blind people gesture, especially when they know they're speaking to other blind people, and communicative intent can't explain why people gesture when they're on the phone. Gesture is simply a part of language use. When we form our thoughts into speech, some of it leaks through our hands.

The sense that gesture is a language of its own is even more pronounced in those cases where it seems to replace speaking entirely. In the nineteenth century, visitors came back from Italy with news of an exotic "gesture language" that was spoken without words at all. After the discovery of the archaeological sites of Herculaneum and Pompeii in the eighteenth century, Naples had become a can't-miss stop on the grand tour. Letters home and travelogues in magazines told tales of complete conversations silently conducted between balconies, gossip and disloyalty (treachery) performed by hand alone, and love affairs arranged without a word spoken. In one fabricated (apocryphal)anecdote, a young beau (swain) woos his beauty over the course of months, without discovery by her father, through gestures and looks exchanged from street to balcony. When he finally arrives at the decided meeting place to run away with her, he hears in the darkness an abrasive squawk asking, "are you there?" Realizing it's the voice of his love, which he has never heard before, he runs the other way.

For the benefit of these foreigners "who had been born in distant regions and who, on account of their cool and sluggish temperament are rather unsuited to gesturing," Andrea de Jorio, an archaeologist at the Royal Borbonic Museum in Naples, produced one of the only works before Efron's to look at gestures as they were used rather than as they ought to be used, an 1832 study that catalogued hundreds of gestures used in the streets of Naples.

De Jorio provides an alphabetized index of gesture meanings for everything from abbondanza(abundance) to uomopanciuto (obese/paunchy man). He not only describes what the gestures look like—the tips of the index finger and thumb joined together facing one another, and then separated by the index finder of the other hand means "I am not friends with you anymore"—he gives little scenarios of the gestures used in context, showing some of the varying shades of meaning they can acquire. In one example, he tells the story of "a certain count, noting that someone he did not know had joined the conversation, and who made a somewhat bad impression, asked his friends, in gesture, who this person was". The first man responded by placing the outside of his thumb at his ear, with the palm facing downward, "thus declaring him to be an ass". The second friend made the same gesture, but with both hands at his ears, "meaning the fellow was more than an ass." The third friend placed the tips of his extended thumbs on his temples with the other fingers wide open and oscillating, confirming that the poor fellow was "not just a fool, he was positively crass (asinine)".

Despite stereotypes, the Italians have never had a monopoly on the wordless gesture. Even the most sluggish-armed (dull) among us can get all kinds of messages across without saying a word: "come here", "he's crazy", "check her out", "yes", "no", "I don't know", "peace", "it's a secret", "I'm thinking", "wait a minute", "stop right there", "something stinks", "I'm not listening", "screw you", "check, please". These gestures aren't exotic to us because they're the ones we use. They seem somehow to belong to the language "common to all men" that Quintilian was talking about.

But of course, they aren't common to all men, as anyone who's ever looked at a travel guidebook can tell you. Remember to avoid the "okay" sign in Brazil, where it means "asshole". Watch out in Bulgaria, where a head nod means "no" and a head shake means "yes". Don't give the thumbs up in Iran unless you mean to say "up yours". Many of the gestures we use in place of speech aren't transparent at all. Their forms are arbitrary and need to be translated just like words.

It is in this silent use of gesture, where the gestures become like words—quotable, conventionally defined, intentionally produced, and meant to communicate—that gesture really does start to look like a language. But looked at more closely, these gestures distinguish themselves from words in interesting ways.

For one, they can be remarkably durable over time. The gestures we inherited from the Greeks and Romans are much more immediately identifiable today than are the words we inherited from them. The digitus impudicus that Romans insulted each other with is the same digit we use for that purpose today (and while the phrase digitus impudicus takes some education and background to decipher, a display of the "brazen (impudent) finger" does not).

Also, these quotable gestures—emblems, as Efron called them—function quite differently from words. They almost never play the role of nouns or verbs. There are gestures that seem like adjectives—the finger pivoting (twirling) at the temple for "crazy", the fingertip kiss for "delicious"—however, they act not as descriptors (signifiers), but as attitude-laden comments. Emblems don't work like words so much as complete speech acts. They don't say, they do. They request(come here!), admonish (shhh!), insult (up yours!), promise (cross my heart!), and compliment(delicious!).

Only in the case of full sign languages of the deaf do gestures take on all the properties of words. Sign languages have nouns and verbs and rules for how they fit into sentences. Signs can say, "rosemary really brings out the flavor in this roast" as well as "delicious!" Signs, like words, are composed out of a finite inventory of units that are defined with discrete boundaries. In American Sign Language, the position of the thumb in a fist—whether it lies next to the fingers, in front of the fingers, or inside the fingers—can make the difference between one meaning, another meaning, and nonsense, in the way that in speech, tiny alternations in vibration and airflow can make the difference between "pine" and "mine". Gestures are wholes. Their internal parts aren't important. When I punch my hand with a fist to tell you that I'm going to beat you up, it hardly matters what my thumb is doing.

The greater the burden of communication gestures have to carry, the more language like they become. But if we already have a full language to communicate, then why do we gesture? Clearly it's useful for cases where we can't or don't want to speak. With gestures, baseball players exchange secrets on the open field, stock traders make deals in the noisy commotion (hubbub) of the pit, scuba divers communicate through the barrier of water, and drivers make their frustration known to other drivers through the barrier of car windows.

These special cases don't represent the bulk of gesturing we do. Most of our gestures happen while we can speak or are speaking. But the act of using language is transient (ephemeral); words disappear as they are spoken. Of course, we've had the ability to preserve the words of the past ever since the invention of writing. But the solid, linear permanence of written language encourages the illusion that language is just an object, a container for thought. In fact, language is also a behavior, a laboratory for thought creation and negotiation. Gestures are thoughts, ideas, speech acts made tangible in the air. They can even, for a moment, outlive the speaker. Death-row inmates have been executed with their middle fingers extended in a final gesture of scorn (defiance).

David McNeill, a psychologist who has spent his career studying gesture, first took notice of it watching two of his colleagues' converse. They looked to him like "sculptors working in different media. One was always pounding and pushing some heavy block like stuff. I imagined that his medium was clay or marble. The other was drawing out and weaving some incredibly delicate, spidery stuff. His medium looked like strings or spiderwebs". Research of the past few decades has shown that putting our thoughts in our hands can help us learn and remember better, can help us speak more fluently and find the right words.

When we speak, we shape our thoughts for language, and when we gesture, we shape them in the space in front of us. We may be different kinds of sculptors using different kinds of media, but our molding, weaving, and chiseling does us good.

(Adapted from "Body Language" by Arika Okrent, available at http://www.laphamsquarterly.org/communication/body-language)

Notes

①　Franz Boas

Franz Uri Boas is a German-American anthropologist and a pioneer of modern anthropology who has been called the "Father of American Anthropology". His work is associated with the movement of anthropological historicism.

②　Naples

Naples is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. Bronze Age Greek settlements were established in the Naples area in the second millennium BC.

③　Quintilian

Quintilian is a Roman rhetorician from Hispania, widely referred to in medieval schools of rhetoric and in Renaissance writing.

④　Cicero

Cicero is a Roman politician and lawyer, who served as consul in the year 63 BC. He came from a wealthy municipal family of the Roman equestrian order, and is considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists.

⑤　John Bulwer

John Bulwer is an English physician and early Baconian natural philosopher who wrote five works exploring the body and human communication, particularly by gesture. He was the first person in England to propose educating deaf people, the plans for an Academy he outlines in Philocophus and The Dumbemansacademie.

Part 3　Exercises

I. Read aloud and listen to the audio of the text for full understanding.

II. Practice subvocal reading at fast speed (250 words per minute), and then try to suppress subvocal to achieve much faster reading speed.

III. Think and respond critically.

1. What's the function of the example in the first paragraph in your opinion?

2. What's the research that Efron conducted? What are the results according to the passage?

3. What's the attitude of Quintilian toward gesture according the passage? How do you understand it?

4. Gestures are not common to all men. Can you illustrate some examples to prove it?

5. What are the differences between gesture and words according to the passage?

IV. Decide whether the following pairs of words are synonyms, antonyms or neither. Use a dictionary for help if necessary.

1. contraction, polar　　　____________

2. pristine, secular　　　____________

3. slime, statute　　　____________

4. homophobia, misogyny　　　____________

5. neurosis, ovary　　　____________

6. fuzz, nap　　　____________

7. beeswax, nectar　　　____________

8. glycerine, cholesterol　　　____________

9. curfew, furlong　　　____________

10. forage, silage　　　____________

11. impoverish, weaken　　　____________

12. exhaustion, fatigue　　　____________

13. enterprising, aggressive　　　____________

14. obsession, passion　　　____________

15. abduct, abhor　　　____________

16. crochet, crotchet　　　____________

17. discern, recognize　　　____________

18. exhort, advise　　　____________

19. fret, worry　　　____________

20. negate, affirm　　　____________

V. Choose the word that best agrees with each group.

1. Thai, phonetic　　　____________

2. spindle, spinner　　　____________

3. trellis, crochet　　　____________

4. checker, lattice　　　____________

5. tavern, tipple　　　____________

6. publican, saloon　　　____________

7. cuckoo, fowl　　　____________

8. spreadsheet, barometer　　　____________

9. paymaster, registrar　　　____________

10. bricklayer, goldsmith　　　____________

11. retake, resale　　　____________

12. rascal, uptight　　　____________

13. plane, hammer　　　____________

14. honeysuckle, pollen　　　____________

15. thigh, liver　　　____________

16. Warcraft, glider　　　____________

17. walnut, shandy　　　____________

18. contra, hereafter　　　____________

19. usher, winger　　　____________

20. Thatcherism, Nazism　　　____________

VI. Fill in the gap with the word that best completes the sentence. Change the form where necessary.

1. The ownership of the Sussex Cricketer has proved itself a much higher quality asset than a promising ________________, and the 62,500 rental from it flows straight through to the bottom line, as do some handsome donations.

2. The proposed system works the same way as summer E grades, with a Roman _______________ (I-X, etc) encompassing the overall difficulty of the route.

3. Circuits which ________________ as a result of suitable positive feedback being applied deliberately round an open-loop amplifier are termed oscillators.

4. If the return to Conservatism is to be something more than the ________________ apparition of a specter from the past, and its voice in national affairs not merely to be a sepulchral warning against the dangers of rash courses, the Conservative leaders must bestir themselves to some purpose.

5. Largely due to her courage and drive she enabled them to grow in _______________ so that the choirs were able to perform the major choral works drawing an audience of over 1,000 at a performance of the Dream of Gerontius.

6. A fiery ________________, and self-styled leader of the persecuted and oppressed, consumed with a reckless urge to sacrifice himself for his ideals.

7. I suggest that the debates about the _______________ for contract law can be conveniently reduced to two liberal perspectives on the fundamental question of the enforceability of contracts, which parallel broader debates about the relation between the citizen and the state.

8. From the hall behind them they could hear the _______________ as their comrades and the invaders fought hand to hand.

9. Mr. Hawke has embarked on a crusade to join the airlines in smashing the pilots' claim, seeing it as a crucial challenge to the _______________ of his government's economic policy, the wages accord between government, employers and unions.

10. Miss Fergusson had merely been put into a temper: first by the attempt to thrust some foolish meaning on to the scriptural verse; and secondly by the priest's ______________ commercial behavior.

11. It has to be said that the old Bousque woman, as old as she was, had not become _______________ with age, an unusual state of affairs in this part of the country.

12. Given first-line treatment for this disorder—use of continuous positive airway pressure(CPAP) to keep his airway open in sleep—the man's mood and _______________ improved, along with his breathing.

13. The Planck teams are busy now removing this foreground fog, a _______________ process akin to identifying and removing all the hay in a haystack to reveal the needle within.

14. When released into the atmosphere, the black, ________________ particles—which are darker than those produced by grassland or forest fires—absorb light and increase atmospheric temperatures.

15. Yet winter holds a/an ________________ beauty, and the lack of visitors, other than furtive squirrels and feral cats, means that I can be alone with my thoughts during my frequent winter sojourns to the garden.

16. Arrogant or defensive people are also usually insecure, in an attempt to hide their insecurities, they _______________ others.

17. Break out of this guilt and let yourself _______________ in your sense of accomplishment for what you have gotten done instead of what there is still to do.

18. We need to deprive, again, the poets, the song makers, the lyricists, the musicians, the mythmakers, the storytellers, all of them, the power to ________________ us.

19. Negative financial or legal consequences can result if data is intercepted by third parties, or if _______________ data is accepted as valid.

20. It is also easier to smile than to ________________. So save yourself the extra effort and choose the easier way.

VII. Classify the words into groups.

1. Words for different units of measurement: _________________________________________

2. Words for various chemical substance: ___________________________________________

3. Words for different occupations: ________________________________________________

4. Words for different colors: _____________________________________________________

VIII. Label each of the following statements F for fact, O for opinion, or B for a blend of both.

1. Boas spent his career arguing that it was culture and environment, not biological race, that accounted for differences in how groups of people behaved.

2. Efron's study was designed as a challenge to the impressionistic explanations of gesture that the race theorists of the 1930s were passing off as science.

3. They are not a language in themselves, but they are a complement to language, a partner with language, a byproduct of language.

4. Efron not only laid the groundwork for a more systematic method of studying gestures, he introduced the idea that gesture was not a companion to speaking, but a product of it.

5. The gestures of the Jews he studied illustrated the connections they were making between ideas and their relative importance.

6. The sense that gesture is a language of its own is even more pronounced in those cases where it seems to replace speaking entirely.

7. Since gesture represented thoughts, or, as Cicero said, "the motions of the soul", orators had to learn how to marshal their gestures to put their thoughts in the best light.

8. In the seventeenth century there were even dictionaries of gesture: Giovanni Bonifacio's The Art of Signs (1616) and John Bulwer's Chirologia and Chironomia (1644) list hundreds of gestures, citing passages from the classics on their meanings.

9. After the discovery of the archaeological sites of Herculaneum and Pompeii in the eighteenth century, Naples had become a can't-miss stop on the grand tour.

10. Research of the past few decades has shown that putting our thoughts in our hands can help us learn and remember better, can help us speak more fluently and find the right words.

IX. Translate the following sentences into Chinese.

1. With our hands we ask, promise, call persons to us and send them away, threaten, supplicate, intimate dislike or fear; with our hands we signify joy, grief, doubt, acknowledgement, penitence, and indicate measure, quantity, number, and time.

2. While aspects of the way we do it are learned or culturally conditioned, and while some of our gestures are intentionally formed with the goal of communication in mind, imitation can't explain why congenitally blind people gesture, especially when they know they're speaking to other blind people, and communicative intent can't explain why people gesture when they're on the phone.

3. It is in this silent use of gesture, where the gestures become like words—quotable, conventionally defined, intentionally produced, and meant to communicate—that gesture really does start to look like a language.

4. In American Sign Language, the position of the thumb in a fist—whether it lies next to the fingers, in front of the fingers, or inside the fingers—can make the difference between one meaning, another meaning, and nonsense, in the way that in speech, tiny alternations in vibration and airflow can make the difference between "pine" and "mine".

5. When we speak, we shape our thoughts for language, and when we gesture, we shape them in the space in front of us. We may be different kinds of sculptors using different kinds of media, but our molding, weaving, and chiseling does us good.

X. The passage introduces various views of gesture. Which viewpoint do you prefer? Write a passage to express your opinion toward body language.