第1部分　早期美国文学：殖民时期至1815年

第1章　“新世界”的文学

Questions for Discussion and Writing Assignments

1Give a brief account of Christopher Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci and Martin Waldseemuller so that you can establish one version of the “origin” of America.

Key: Christopher Columbus was often regarded as the founder of “America”, but it was very controversial because that Columbus who “discovered” America in fact thought that he had reached Asia. He was so convinced that he had reached the land of the great Khan that in his four voyages between 1492 and 1502, he interpreted everything he saw according to his pre-established view of what Asia or Asians should look like.

“America” was named after Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian merchant, explorer and cartographer, who sailed to Brazil in 1501 under the Portuguese flag and he noted: “we arrived at a new land which ... we observed to be a continent.” In 1503 his book Mundus Novus (The New World) was printed and was more widely circulated than anything written by Columbus. Many people think that he was the very person discovered “America”.

Martin Waldseemuller was a German geographer. He found Vespucci’s work when he was preparing a new edition of the world’s map. It was Waldseemuller who decided that the new land should be named after its finder: Amerigo. On his 1507 world map, this German geographer marked the new territory—what he called the “fourth part” of the world following Europe, Africa, and Asia—as “America”. Vespucci as an explorer is also controversial in that he fabricated the tale that he had made a 1497 voyage during which he found the Southern American continent. It is quite possible that he made up the story to beat Columbus as the first discoverer.

At any rate, it was Vespucci’s writings and Waldseemuller’s map that made Europeans aware of the “fourth part” of the world. The Europeans then understood that Columbus’s description of the New World as a string of Asian islands was quite misleading. At any rate, to the New World called “America” European settlers came in incessant waves.

2Give some specific examples for the argument that the “origin” of America is multicultural.

Key: There were many explorers from different nations came here and exerted their influence on the native people of the new land. For example, people came from England, brought with their culture, religions, traditions and so on.

3From the first few pages of this book, do you acquire a new understanding of “discoveries” of America? If so, what is this new understanding?

Key: Yes, I acquire a new understanding of “discoveries” of America. Before I read the passage, I thought it was Columbus that discovered America, and there was nothing worthy of doubting about. But after I read it, I found that the fact was not like what I thought. I get new knowledge about the discoveries of America which enriched my mind.

At the same time, I realize that histories were past, and everyone has the rights to explain it, perhaps, as he wants to. So, if we want to know histories in the way as it really was, we should read materials as much as possible.

4What is the story of the word “Indian” as it is applied to the indigenous people in America?

Key: When Columbus set sail from Spain on August 3, 1492, he was driven by the desire to find a convenient sea passage to the Orient, or, more specifically, a passage to the land of Kublai Khan as Marco Polo had described it in his 13th century travelogues. When he arrived at America, he was so convinced that he had reached the land of the great Khan that in his four voyages between 1492 and 1502, he interpreted everything he saw according to his pre-established view of what Asia or Asians should look like. He thought that he had reached Asia and the land under his feet was India. So, the indigenous people in America were wrongly called “Indian”.

5What are the consequences of the Native Americans’ “contact” with European settlers? Why do you think the word “contact” is used by some historians?

Key: Native Americans were greatly influenced and conquered by European settlers, because Europeans at that time were very strong and aggressive, especially England, Span, France and so on. In fact, from Columbus’ friend’s informal account of their second voyage to America, we can see how quickly the relationship between the Europeans and the natives deteriorated.

Historians use “contact” mainly because that Native Americans and Europeans could not communicate with each other in an effective way. At that time, there were so many striking differences between them, economically, religiously, culturally, and politically.

6What are “origin stories?” Give two examples.

Key: Origin stories are those dramatizing tribal interpretations of how the earth originated or of how people established relationships with plants, animals and the cosmos. “Earth-Diver” and “First Beginning” are two typical original stories.

7Give examples to explain “trickster tales” and “historical narratives” in Native American literature. Compare the discussion of Native American literature in this chapter with that in Chapter 26. Discuss the continuity.

Key: Trickster tales are humorous tales featuring trickster characters. Trickster figures are people in the form of animals such as Coyote, Raven, Blue Jay, Mink, or Rabbit. One might also say that they are half animal and half human. A good Chinese analogy for the “trickster” would be Sun Wukong the Monkey King.

Historical narratives are diverse in kinds. Some of them are tribal records of historical events. Many other narratives feature legendary figures that move in recognizable historical settings. In such tales, the line between an actual event and tribal belief is blurred. Of this vast historical literature, many stories recount European colonization from the perspective of Native Americans. For instance, to the Yuchis, a tribe in the Southeast, white people emerged from the sea foam of the Atlantic. The Yuchi tale “Creation of the Whites” reveals so much of the emotions associated with the first encounters between the Europeans and the natives.

In the early time, most Native American stories were orally passed on, these tales then have a performative dimension: they are not only “told,” they are also “sung” as chants and songs, and dramatized in ritual dances. The main types of their stories were origin stories, trickster tales and historical narratives. While in chapter 26, the Native American literature is in written form and those writers have their various themes and styles.

8What is the Eurocentric thinking in the exploration writings by Christopher Columbus and Captain John Smith? How is this thinking specifically is manifested?

Key: The Eurocentric thinking is that some people think that Europe is the center of the world and it holds the most important position in the world.

Many Europeans think that they are the center of the world, and their culture, values, religion, economy, political system and so on are the best of the whole world. They think that people in other parts of the world should submit to them. So, not long after that time, some European countries began to establish colonies around the world. Even now, there are till many people in Europe hold the same idea and try to exert their cultures, values, religious beliefs and so on over people in other parts of the world, especially of some developing countries.