第五节 结构安排
本书分为八章,其中第一章是导论。第二章是本书的理论部分,笔者将提出一个新的制度变迁理论,来解释美国军事制度的变革。作为本书的核心部分,第二章将详细探讨本书的自变量和因变量之间的关系,并建构一个理论解释机制。第三章到第七章是本书的理论验证章节,用五个案例来验证第二章提出的论定。
其中,第三章探讨的是第二次世界大战之后美国政府通过1947年《国家安全法》统一国防部门的过程。本书认为,国际压力作为体系层面的因素,极大地推动了美国国防部门的重组,军事学说和各军种间的竞争也是推动这一变革的主要力量。
第四章探讨的是艾森豪威尔政府时期对国防部门的调整。在朝鲜战争期间及其之后,美国军事制度的缺陷暴露无遗,文官和军方都提出了变革的要求,艾森豪威尔政府分别在1953年和1958年通过两次国防重组,完善了军事制度,缓解了军方与文官之间的张力。
第五章则探讨20世纪80年代时里根政府的国防改革。经历越战之后,美国在军事上的失利促使文官和军方反思,一系列博弈之后,国会通过了1986年《戈德华特-尼科尔斯国防部改组法》(Goldwater-Nichols DoD Reorganization Act)(下称《戈德华特-尼科尔斯改组法》),对国防部进行重组。这次改革提高了参联会主席和国防部长的权力,推动了文官和军方的“双向嵌入”。
第六章探讨的是克林顿政府时期的新军事变革为何没有导致美国军事制度的变革。这一章集中讨论的是这一时期刚刚兴起的军事技术革命。仔细探究我们就会发现,当时美国面临着调整自身军事制度的诸多压力,但是新军事变革并没有引起美国军事制度的大规模变革。也就是说,这一章是本书的一个负面案例。
第七章探讨拉姆斯菲尔德就任国防部长以后推动的军事改革。拉姆斯菲尔德就任国防部长以后,适逢“9·11”事件的爆发,新的国际形势给美国军事制度提出了更高的要求。拉姆斯菲尔德及其继任者盖茨则致力于改革尾大不掉的陆军,推动军事组织的变革,以及各军种之间的联合作战。最后结论部分将总结本书的观点,并展望未来美国军事制度变革的趋势。
[1] Barry R.Posen,“Command of the Commons:The Military Foundation of U.S.Hegemony,”International Security,Vol.28,No.1(Summer 2003),pp.5-46.
[2] 〔美〕赫伯特·斯托林:《反联邦党人赞成什么:宪法反对者的政治思想》,汪庆华译,北京大学出版社,2006,第4章。
[3] Fareed Zakaria,From Wealth to Power:The Unusual Origins of America’s World Role(Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1998).
[4] 对此的介绍,参见Douglas T.Stuart,Creating the National Security State:A History of the Law That Transformed America(Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,2008)。
[5] 对美国当前军事实力使得美国更不安全的论述,参见Christopher A.Preble,The Power Problem:How American Military Dominance Makes Us Less Safe,Less Prosperous,and Less Free(Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,2009)。
[6] Richard K.Betts,“Should Strategic Studies Survive?”World Politics,Vol.50,No.1(October 1997),pp.7-8.
[7] Peter Gourevitch,“The Second Image Reversed:the International Sources of Domestic Politics,”International Organization,Vol.32,No.4(Autumn 1978),pp.881-912;〔美〕罗伯特·基欧汉、海伦·米尔纳:《国际化与国内政治》,姜鹏、董素华译,北京大学出版社,2003。
[8] Helen V.Milner,“Rationalizing Politics:The Emerging Synthesis of International,American,and Comparative Politics,”International Organization,Vol.52,No.4(Autumn 1998),pp.759-786.
[9] Robert D.Putnam,“Diplomacy and Domestic Politics:The Logic of Two-Level Games,”International Organization,Vol.42,No.3(Summer 1988),pp.427-460.
[10] 〔美〕哈罗德·拉斯维尔:《政治学:谁得到什么?何时和如何得到?》,杨昌裕译,北京:商务印书馆,1992,第6章。
[11] 对此的介绍,参见Graham T.Allison,“Conceptual Models and the Cuban Missile Crisis,”American Political Science Review,Vol.63,No.3(September 1969),pp.669-707;Graham T.Alli-son,Essence of Decision:Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis(Boston:Little,Brown and Company,1971),chapter 3。也可参见Charles W.Ostrom,Jr.,“Evaluating Alternative Foreign Policy Decision-Making Models:An Empirical Test between an Arm Race and an Organizational Politics Model,”The Journal of Conflict Resolution,Vol.21,No.2(June 1977),pp.235-266;David A.Welch,“The Organizational Process and Bureaucratic Politics Paradigms:Retrospect and Prospect,”International Security,Vol.17,No.2(Autumn 1992),pp.112-146。
[12] Samuel P.Huntington,“Power,Expertise and the Military Profession,”Daedalus,Vol.92,No.4(Fall 1963),pp.785-807.
[13] 这些责任促使军队(1)视国家为基本的政治组织;(2)强调对国家安全威胁这一本质,并一贯好战;(3)强调安全威胁的重大和急迫;(4)支持维系强有力、多样和机动的军事力量;(5)除非胜局已定,反对国家在战争中承诺和干预过多。参见Samuel P.Huntington,The Soldier and the State:The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations(Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Press,1957),pp.64-65。
[14] Morris Janowitz,The Professional Soldier:A Social and Political Portrait(New York:The Free Press,1960),pp.349-350.
[15] Morris Janowitz,“Organizing Multiple Goals:War Making and Arms Control,” in Morris Jannowitz ed.,The New Military:Changing Patterns of Organization(New York:Russell Sage Foundation,1964),pp.11-31.
[16] Jeremy Black,“Military Organisations and Military Change in Historical Perspective,”The Journal of Military History,Vol.62,No.4(October 1998),pp.871-892.
[17] Samuel P.Huntington,“Interservice Competition and the Political Roles of the Armed Services,”American Political Science Review,Vol.55,No.1(March 1961),pp.40-52.
[18] Samuel P.Huntington,“Organization and Strategy,” in Robert J.Art et al eds.,Reorganizing American Defense:Leadership in War and Peace(Washington,D.C.:Pergamon-Brassey’s International Defense Publishers,1985),pp.230-254.
[19] John C.Ries,The Management of Defense:Organization and Control of the U.S.Armed Services(Baltimore,M.D.:The Johns Hopkins Press,1964).对这一阶段美国国防重组的介绍,还可以参见Demetrios Caraley,The Politics of Military Unification:A Study of Conflict and Policy Process(New York:Columbia University Press,1966)。也有学者从第一次世界大战前开始研究,参见Paul Y.Hammond,Organizing for Defense:The American Military Establishment in the Twentieth Century(Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1961)。
[20] Stephen Peter Rosen,“New Ways of War:Understanding Military Innovation,”International Security,Vol.13,No.1(Summer 1988),pp.134-168.更为详细的讨论,参见Stephen Peter Rosen,Winning the Next War:Innovation and the Modern Military(Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,1991)。
[21] Michael H.Armacost,The Politics of Weapon Innovation:The Thor-Jupiter Controversy(New York:Columbia University Press,1969);Mark D.Mandeles,Military Transformation Past and Present:Historical Lessons for the 21st Century(Westport,C.T.:Praeger Security International,2007).
[22] Chris C.Demchak,Military Organizations,Complex Machines:Modernization in the U.S.Armed Services(Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,1991).
[23] William J.Lynn and Barry R.Posen,“The Case for JSC Reform,”International Security,Vol.10,No.3(Winter 1985/1986),pp.69-97.
[24] Richard G.Head,“The Sociology of Military Decision-Making:The A-7 Aircraft,”Pacific Sociological Review,Vol.16,No.2(April 1973),pp.209-227.
[25] 第二次世界大战之后,在行为主义的影响下,新研究方法的利用使得社会科学学者对组织的研究逐渐深入,出现了研究组织的第一个黄金时期。其中最具有代表性的有两个流派,第一个是哥伦比亚学派,以科层制为核心研究对象,注重探讨组织的功能和反功能,代表文献参见Peter Blau,Bureaucracy in Modern Society(New York:Random House,1956);Peter Blau and Richard Scott,Formal Organization:A Comparative Approach(San Francisco:Chandler Publishing Company,1962);Alvin W.Gouldner,Patterns of Industrial Bureaucracy(New York:Free Press,1954);Alvin W.Gouldner,“Metaphysical Pathos and the Theory of Bureaucracy,”American Political Science Review,Vol.49,No.2(June 1955),pp.496-507。第二个是卡内基-梅隆学派,主要是提出了有限理性的假定,即组织并非一个理性的行为体,而是一个有限理性的行为体,这些学者在此基础上建构了一系列理论模式,代表性文献参见Herbert A.Simon,Administrative Behavior:A Study of Decision-Making in Administrative Organization(New York:Macmillan Company,1951);James G.March and Herbert A.Simon,Organizations(New York:John Wiley & Sons,1958);James G.March ed.,Handbook of Organizations(Chicago:Rand McNally,1965)。
[26] Peter A.Hall and Rosemary C.R.Taylor,“Political Science and the Three New Institutionalisms,”Political Studies,Vol.44,No.5(December 1996),pp.936-957.也可以参见薛晓源、陈家刚主编《全球化与新制度主义》,北京:社会科学文献出版社,2004;何俊志等编译《新制度主义政治学译文精选》,天津人民出版社,2007。
[27] Richard Snyder et al.,Decision Making as an Approach to the Study of International Politics,Foreign Policy Analysis Project,Foreign Policy Analysis Series No.3,Princeton University,1954.
[28] 参见Richard E.Neustadt,Presidential Power and the Modern Presidents:The Politics of Leadership from Roosevelt to Reagan(New York:The Free Press,1990)。
[29] 讨论官僚政治模式分析外交政策的代表性文献,参见Samuel P.Huntington,The Common Defense:Strategic Programs in National Security Politics(New York:Columbia University Press,1961);Graham T.Allison,“Conceptual Models and the Cuban Missile Crisis”;Richard E.Neustadt,Alliance Politics(New York:Columbia University Press,1970);Graham T.Allison,Essence of Decision;Francis E.Rourke,Bureaucracy and Foreign Policy(Baltimore,M.D.:The Johns Hopkins University Press,1972);Graham T.Allison and Morton H.Halperin,“Bureaucratic Politics:A Paradigm and Some Policy Implications,”World Politics,Vol.24,Supplement:Theory and Policy in International Relations(Spring 1972),pp.40-79;Morton H.Halperin,National Security Policy-Making:Analyses,Cases,and Proposals(Lexington,Mass.:Lexington Books,1975),chapter 1;David C.Kozak and James M.Keagle eds.,Bureaucratic Politics and National Security:Theory and Practice(Boulder,Colo.:Lynne Rienner,1988);Jonathan Bendor and Thomas H.Hammond,“Rethinking Allison’s Models,”American Political Science Review,Vol.86,No.2(June 1992),pp.301-322;David A.Welch,“The Organizational Process and Bureaucratic Politics Paradigms:Retrospect and Prospect”;Wendy L.Hansen et al.,“Specialized Courts,Bureaucratic Agencies,and the Politics of U.S.Trade Policy,”American Journal of Political Science,Vol.39,No.3(August 1995),pp.529-557;Thomas Preston,“Understanding and Evaluating Bureaucratic Politics:The Nexus Between Political Leaders and Advisory Systems,”Political Psychology,Vol.20,No.1(March 1999),pp.49-98;Daniel W.Drezner,“Ideas,Bureaucratic Politics,and the Crafting of Foreign Policy,”American Journal of Political Science,Vol.44,No.4(October 2000),pp.733-749;Eben J.Christensen and Steven B.Redd,“Bureaucrats versus the Ballot Box in Foreign Policy Decision Making:An Experimental Analysis of Bureaucratic Politics Model and Poliheuristic Theory,”The Journal of Conflict Resolution,Vol.48,No.1(February 2004),pp.69-90;Morton H.Halperin et al.,Bureaucratic Politics and Foreign Policy,2nd edition(Washington,D.C.:Brookings Institution Press,2006)。中文一些代表性的文献,参见〔美〕詹姆斯·威尔逊《美国官僚政治:政府机构行为的动因》,张海涛等译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,1995;〔美〕罗杰·希尔斯曼等:《防务与外交政策中的政治:概念模式与官僚政治》,曹大鹏译,北京:商务印书馆,2000;张清敏:《美国对台军售决策的官僚政治因素》,《国际政治科学》2006年第1期,第28—61页;吴文成、梁占军:《古巴导弹危机中的官僚位置与决策》,《国际政治科学》2006年第4期,第54—81页;周琪:《官僚政治模式与美国外交决策研究方法》,《世界经济与政治》2011年第6期,第34—51页。
[30] 对官僚政治模式的概念解释,参见Graham T.Allison,“Conceptual Models and the Cuban Missile Crisis,”pp.707-715;Graham T.Allison and Morton H.Halperin,“Bureaucratic Politics:A Paradigm and Some Policy Implications,”pp.43-56;Robert J.Art,“Bureaucratic Politics and American Foreign Policy:A Critique,”Policy Science,Vol.4,No.4(December 1973),pp.467-490。
[31] 例如,美国海军内部就受到官僚政治的深刻影响,参见Paul T.Mitchell,“Ideas,Interests,and Strategy:Bureaucratic Politics and the United States Navy,”Armed Forces & Society,Vol.25,No.2(Winter 1999),pp.243-265。当然,也有学者不认同官僚政治对海军政策模式的影响。例如,爱德华·罗兹(Edward Rhodes)就认为理念而非官僚组织利益影响海军的政策模式,参见Edward Rhodes,“Do Bureaucratic Politics Matter?Some Disconfirming Findings from the Case of U.S.Navy,”World Politics,Vol.47,No.1(October 1994),pp.1-41。
[32] J.A.Stockfisch,Plowshares into Swords:Managing the American Defense Establishment(New York:Mason & Lipscomb Publishers,1973).
[33] Frederic A.Bergerson,The Army Gets an Air Force:Tactics of Insurgent Bureaucratic Politics(Baltimore,M.D.:The Johns Hopkins University Press,1978).与此类似,文森特·戴维斯也认为中层官僚在组织和技术创新中发挥着重要作用,参见Vincent Davis,The Politics of Innovation Patterns in Navy Cases(Denver,Colo.:University of Denver,1967),p.33。
[34] David A.Welch,“The Organizational Process and Bureaucratic Politics Paradigms:Retrospect and Prospect,”p.120.
[35] Stephen D.Krasner,“Are Bureaucracies Important?”Foreign Policy,No.7(Summer 1972),p.160.
[36] 代表性的研究,参见〔美〕彼得·卡赞斯坦《文化规范与国家安全:战后日本警察与自卫队》,李小华译,北京:新华出版社,2002;〔美〕彼得·卡赞斯坦主编《国家安全的文化:世界政治中的规范与认同》,宋伟、刘铁娃译,北京大学出版社,2009。对军事文化对美国行为的探讨,参见Adrian R.Lewis,The American Culture of War:The History of U.S.Military Force from World War II to Operation Iraqi Freedom(New York:Routledge,2007);Benjamin Buley,The New American Way of War:Military Culture and the Political Utility of Force(New York:Routledge,2008)。
[37] Peter H.Wilson,“Defining Military Culture,”The Journal of Military History,Vol.72,No.1(January 2008),pp.11-41.
[38] 对军事组织结构对国家行为的研究,参见Barry R.Posen,The Source of Military Doctrine:France,Britain,and Germany between the World Wars(Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,1984);Jack L.Snyder,The Ideology of Offensive:Military Decision Making and the Disasters of 1914(Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,1984);Barry R.Posen,Inadvertent Escalation:Conventional War and Nuclear Risks(Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,1992)。对军事组织文化对国家行为的研究,参见Jeffrey W.Legro,“Military Culture and Inadvertent Escalation in World War II,”International Security,Vol.18,No.4(Spring 1994),pp.108-142;Jeffrey W.Legro,“Which Norms Matter?Revisiting the‘Failure’of Internationalism,”International Organization,Vol.51,No.1(Winter 1997),pp.35-38。也有学者认为,文官的文化是国家进攻性行为的重要原因,参见Elizabeth Kier,Imagining War:French and British Military Doctrine between Wars(Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1997)。
[39] Williamson Murray,“Does Military Culture Matter?”Orbis,Vol.43,No.1(Winter 1999),pp.27-42;Theo Farrell and Terry Terriff eds.,The Sources of Military Change:Culture,Politics,Technology(Boulder,Colo.:Pynne Rienner Publishers,2002).
[40] Eliot A.Cohen,Citizens and Soldiers:The Dilemmas of Military Service(Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,1985).
[41] Emily O.Goldman,“Cultural Foundations of Military Diffusion,”Review of International Studies,Vol.32,No.1(January 2006),pp.70-71.对军事技术和观念扩散的论述,还可参见Emily O.Goldman and Leslie C.Eliason eds.,The Diffusion of Military Technology and Ideas(Stanford,C.A.:Stanford University Press,2003)。
[42] Adam N.Stulberg,“Managing Military Transformations:Agency,Culture,and the U.S.Carrier Revolution,”Security Studies,Vol.14,No.3(July-September 2005),pp.489-528.
[43] Dima Adamsky,The Culture of Military Innovation:The Impact of Culture Factors on the Revolution in Military Affairs in Russia,the U.S.and Israel(Stanford,C.A.:Stanford University Press,2010),chapter 3.
[44] 例如,在《装甲战》一书中,富勒就认为,内燃机的出现,特别是摩托化车辆和飞机的大量使用,必然推动各国在军事组织形式、军队的指挥和战略战术上的革命。参见〔英〕富勒《装甲战》,周德等译,北京:解放军出版社,1987。
[45] 代表性的讨论,参见Henry A.Kissinger,Nuclear Weapons & Foreign Policy(New York:Council on Foreign Relations,1957);Scott D.Sagan and Kennth N.Waltz,The Spread of Nuclear Weapons:A Debate(New York:W.W.Norton & Company,1995),p.33。
[46] 《战略研究杂志》在2004年有一期对此的主题研究,参见Emily O.Goldman et al.,“Information Resources and Military Performance,”The Journal of Strategic Studies,Vol.27,No.2(June 2004)。
[47] 约翰·霍普金斯大学华盛顿外交政策研究所研究报告《军事技术的发展及其对美国战略和外交政策的影响》,何慧译,北京:世界知识出版社,1960;Robert L.Paarlberg,“Knowledge as Power:Science,Military Dominance,and U.S.Security,”International Security,Vol.29,No.1(Summer 2004),pp.122-151;Michael E.O’Hanlon,The Science of War:Defense Budgeting,Military Technology,Logistics,and Combat Outcomes(Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,2009),chapter 4。
[48] Hans Binnendijk ed.,Transforming American’s Military(Washington,D.C.:National Defense Univeristy Press,2002);Colin S.Gray,“Technology as a Dynamic of Defense Transformation,”Defense Studies,Vol.6,No.1(March 2006),pp.26-51;Harvey Sapolsky et al.eds.,US Military Innovation since the Cold War:Creation Without Destruction(New York:Routledge,2009).中国学者对此的研究,参见周建明《美国的国防转型及其对中国的影响》,济南:山东人民出版社,2006。
[49] Andrew F.Krepinevich,The Military-Technical Revolution:A Preliminary Assessment(Washington,D.C.:Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments,2002).
[50] William P.Delaney,“Air Defense of the United States:Strategic Missions and Modern Technology,”International Security,Vol.15,No.1(Summer 1990),pp.181-211.
[51] Peter Dombrowski and Eugene Gholz,Buying Military Transformation:Technological Innovation and Defense Industry(New York:Columbia University Press,2006).
[52] William M.McBride,Technological Change and the United States Navy,1865-1945(Baltimore,M.D.:The Johns Hopkins University Press,2000).
[53] David S.Alberts,Information Age Transformation:Getting to a 21st Century Military(Washington,D.C.:CCRP Publication Series,2002).
[54] Benjamin S.Lambeth,The Transformation of American Air Power(Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,2000).
[55] Charles Tilly ed.,The Formation of National States in Western Europe(Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1975);Charles Tilly,Coercion,Capital,and European States,AD 990-1990(Cambridge,Mass.:Basil Blackwell,1990).
[56] Kenneth N.Waltz,Man,the State and War:A Theoretical Analysis(New York:Columbia University Press,1954).
[57] Eugene Gholz and Harvey M.Sapolsky,“Restructuring the U.S.Defense Industry,”International Security,Vol.24,No.3(Winter 1999-2000),pp.5-51;Benjamin S.Lambeth,Combat Pair:The Evolution of Air Force-Navy Integration in Strike Warfare(Santa Monica,C.A.:Rand,2007).
[58] David McCormick,The Downsized Warrior:America’s Army in Transition(New York:New York University Press,1998).
[59] 对这一领域的研究很多,代表性的文献,参见Zeb B.Bradford and Frederic J.Brown,The United Army in Transition(New York:Sage,1973);Richard Lock-Pullan,US Intervention Policy and Army Innovation:From Vietnam to Iraq(New York:Routledge,2006);Joseph Roger Clark,Innovation Under Fire:Politics,Learning,and US Army Doctrine(Ph.D.Dissertation,The George Washington University,2011)。
[60] L.Benjamin Ederington and Michael J.Mazarr,Turning Point:The Gulf War and U.S.Military Strategy(Boulder,Colo.:Westview Press,1994);Daryl G.Press,“The Myth of Air Power in the Persian Gulf War and the Future of Warfare,”International Security,Vol.26,No.2(Fall 2001),pp.5-44.对海湾战争中美国空军作用的回顾,还可参见Eliot A.Cohen ed.,Gulf War Air Power Survey(Volume I,II,III,IV,V)(Washington,D.C.:Government Printing Office,1993)。
[61] Andrew J.Bacevich and Eliot A.Cohen eds.,War over Kosovo:Politics and Strategy in a Global Age(New York:Columbia University Press,2001);Daniel L.Byman and Matthew C.Waxman,“Kosovo and the Great Air Power Debate,”International Security,Vol.24,No.4(Spring 2000),pp.5-38.
[62] David H.Ucko,The New Counterinsurgency Era:Transforming the U.S.Military for Modern Wars(Washington,D.C.:Georgetown University Press,2009);Thomas Donnelly and Frederick W.Kagan eds.,Lessons for a Long War:How America Can Win on New Battlefields(Washington,D.C.:The AEI Press,2010).也可以参见Michael E.O’Hanlon,Defense Strategy for the Post-Saddam Era(Washington,D.C.:Brookings Institution Press,2005);Keith L.Shimko,The Iraq Wars and American’s Military Revolution(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2010);Chad C.Serena,A Revolution in Military Adaptation:The US Army in the Iraq War(Washington,D.C.:Georgetown University Press,2011)。对这一概念的梳理,参见葛腾飞、苏听《美国“反叛乱”理论的发展及其困境》,《美国研究》2012年第1期,第27—46页;葛腾飞:《美国在伊拉克的“反叛乱”战略》,《外交评论》2013年第2期,第78—94页。
[63] William M.Donnelly,Transforming an Army at War:Designing the Modular Force,1991-2005(Washington,D.C.:Center of Military History,2007).
[64] Zeb B.Bradford and Frederic J.Brown,America’s Army:A Model for Interagency Effectiveness(Westport,C.T.:Praeger Security International,2008).
[65] 对机制的探讨,参见Mario Bunge,“Mechanism and Explanation,”Philosophy of the Social Sciences,Vol.27,No.4(December 1997),pp.410-465;Tulia G.Falleti and Julia F.Lynch,“Context and Casual Mechanisms in Political Analysis,”Comparative Political Studies,Vol.42,No.9(September 2009),pp.1143-1166;John Gerring,“Causal Mechanisms:Yes,But…,”Comparative Political Studies,Vol.43,No.11(November 2010),pp.1499-1526。
[66] 需要指出的是,理论上,美国军方内部分为陆军、海军和空军三个军种。但是,在现实中,海军陆战队具有相当大的独立性,一般被视为一个军种。为了方便研究,本书在归类上将海军陆战队视为一个军种。
[67] 对军事学说的定义,本书参考了巴里·波森(Barry R.Posen)的观点,参见Barry R.Posen,The Source of Military Doctrine,pp.13-16。
[68] 为了研究方便,本书将军方内部单一部门(陆军、海军、空军和海军陆战队)的变革归类为军方内部的组织变化。
[69] Gary King et al.,Designing Social Inquiry:Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research(Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1994),p.7.
[70] 需要指出的是,选取历史事件的关键节点需要关注关键性前因(Critical Antecedents),对此的讨论参见Dan Slater and Erica Simmons,“Informative Regress:Critical Antecedents in Comparative Politics,”Comparative Political Studies,Vol.43,No.7(July 2010),pp.866-917。
[71] 这也就是斯蒂芬·克拉斯纳所谓的“断续性平衡理论”,对此的论述,参见Stephen D.Krasner,“Approaches to State:Alternative Conceptions and Historical Dynamics,”Comparative Politics,Vol.16,No.2(January 1984),pp.223-246。
[72] 李少军认为案例研究有三种分析方法,即过程追踪、相合性检验和反事实分析,参见李少军《论国际关系中的案例研究法》,《当代亚太》2008年第3期,第118页。
[73] 〔美〕斯蒂芬·范埃弗拉:《政治学研究方法指南》,陈琪译,北京大学出版社,2006,第51—52页。对案例研究的详细探讨,参见Robert K.Yin,Case Study Research:Design and Methods,3rd Edition(Thousand Oaks,C.A:Sage,2003);John Gerring,“What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?”American Political Science Review,Vol.98,No.2(May 2004),pp.341-354;John Gerring,Case Study Research:Principles and Practices(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2007)。
[74] Alexander L.George and Andrew Bennett,Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences(Cambridge,Mass.:MIT Press,2005),chapter 10;Andrew Bennett and Colin Elman,“Complex Causal Relations and Case Study Methods:The Example of Path Dependence,”Political Analysis,Vol.14,No.3(Summer 2006),pp.261-263;Andrew Bennett and Colin Elman,“Qualitative Research:Recent Developments in Case Study Methods,”Annual Review of Political Science,Vol.9,(June 2006),pp.459-460.对负面案例的论述,参见Rebacca Jean Emigh,“The Power of Negative Thinking:The Use of Negative Case Methodology in the Development of Sociological Theory,”Theory and Society,Vol.26,No.5(October 1997),pp.649-684。
[75] Andrew Bennett,“Process Tracing and Causal Inference,” in Henry Brady and David Collier eds.,Rethinking Social Inquiry(Lanham,M.D.:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers,2010),p.209.
[76] 对访谈的一些注意事项,参见陈向明《社会科学中的定性研究方法》,《中国社会科学》1996年第6期,第93—102页;〔美〕赫伯特·鲁宾、艾琳·鲁宾:《质性访谈方法:聆听与提问的艺术》,卢晖临、连佳佳、李丁译,卢晖临校,重庆大学出版社,2010。