Part I Basic Systems
Chapter 1 How the CPC Leads
With China’s rapid rise, more and more people are realizing that in order to understand today’s world, one must understand China, and in order to understand China, one must understand the CPC. The CPC is the largest political party in the world, and the one governing party wielding the core political power in the most populous country in the world. On the political party spectrum, what are the characteristics of the Chinese system? Are there other political parties in China? If there are, what is their relationship with the CPC? What is the status of other parties in the Chinese political system? What are the prospects for the future of China’s political party system? All these are fundamental questions related to understanding China’s political party system.
Characteristics of China’s Political Party System
A party system is the collection of various political rules regulating structures and behaviors of political parties, normally adopted to coordinate relationships between political parties, between political parties and the government, and between political parties and the people.
Since human societies entered the era of party politics, party systems have been an integral part of political systems, playing a vital role in the political activities of different countries.
Western countries practice mainly competitive party systems, including two-party systems and multiparty systems, but there are also one-party systems of various forms.
China has adopted a multiparty cooperation system under one-party leadership, namely, the leadership of the CPC. It is not only different to Western systems where one party dominates, and two-party and multiparty systems, but also different to the one-party system of the Soviet Union. It is a new form of party system with strong Chinese characteristics. In summary, one-party leadership is not one-party dictatorship, but the coexistence of multiple parties does not mean multiparty competition. Its basic feature is multiparty cooperation under the leadership of the CPC, with the CPC holding power and the other political parties participating fully in state affairs.
1. One-party Leadership, Multiparty Cooperation
China does not employ one-party politics but the political party system of one-party rule with multiparty participation.
In addition to the CPC, which is the governing party, there are eight other non-communist political parties:
· Revolutionary Committee of the Chinese Kuomintang (RCCK);
· China Democratic League (CDL);
· China National Democratic Construction Association (CNDCA);
· China Association for Promoting Democracy (CAPD);
· Chinese Peasants and Workers Democratic Party (CPWDP);
· China Zhi Gong Party;
· Jiu San Society; and
· Taiwan Democratic Self-government League (TDSL).
They were all established during the middle and late periods of the Chinese People’s War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression (1937-1945), and during the War of Liberation (1945-1949). They were rooted in the national bourgeoisie, and the urban petty bourgeoisie, and included intellectuals and other patriotic democrats who were associated with them. Their founders and key members were the older generation of patriotic democrats.
These non-communist political parties left a glorious mark in the history of the Chinese revolution, enduring hardship together with the CPC, and going through the process from establishing cooperation with the CPC, to allying with the CPC against Chiang Kai-shek’s government, and then to accepting the leadership of the CPC. In May 1948, they actively supported the CPC’s call for convening the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) and establishing a democratic coalition government. They participated in the first CPPCC held in September 1949 for the founding of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), and have made a tremendous contribution to the building of a new China. After the founding of the PRC on October 1, 1949, non-communist political parties began to participate in the work of the people’s government and the CPPCC, and played a positive role in consolidating the newly-founded people’s government.
One-party leadership means the leadership of the CPC. This is the basic characteristic of China’s political party system, as stated in the Constitution. One-party leadership means that the existence of competitive parties is not tolerated and no opposition party is permitted. The CPC does not share state political leadership with any other political parties or groups.
Multiparty cooperation means cooperation between the CPC and the current eight non-communist political parties. This is an important element of political party relations in the Chinese system. According to the Constitution, although non-communist political parties are not and will not become governing parties, they participate in China’s national political activities under the precondition of accepting the CPC’s leadership voluntarily.
“Opinions of the CPC Central Committee on Further Strengthening the Building of the Multiparty Cooperation and Political Consultation System under the Leadership of the CPC”, promulgated in February 2005, set out clear and detailed stipulations about the relationship between the CPC and the eight non-communist political parties. The document emphasized that the CPC forms the leadership core of the socialist cause and the governing party. All the eight other political parties accept the leadership of the CPC, cooperate fully and closely with the CPC, and participate in political affairs to further the cause of Chinese socialism, incorporating both progressiveness and universality. Multiparty cooperation must uphold the leadership of the CPC and the Four Cardinal Principles(1).
2. One-party Rule, Multiparty Participation
Multiparty participation means that the eight non-communist political parties participate in deliberations on state policies, in appointments to the national leadership, in administration of state affairs, and in the formulation and implementation of national policies, laws and regulations.
According to the current institutional arrangements, a certain number of places in the people’s congresses (including leadership posts), their standing committees and special committees at various levels are allotted to members of non-communist political parties and prominent individuals without any party affiliation. In the standing committees of the people’s congresses at both national and provincial levels, there must be non-communist party members and prominent individuals without any party affiliation who serve as vice-chairpersons. These representatives should be elected or assigned to the leadership of local governments at and above the county level. In the leadership groups of governmental departments which are responsible for law-enforcement oversight, which bear closely on the interests of the public, and which have close ties with intellectuals and are highly specialized technically, priority should be given to these representatives when deputies are elected or assigned, and those eligible should be elected or assigned as principals. A certain number of these representatives should be elected or assigned to leadership groups of relevant ministries and commissions, closely affiliated institutions of the State Council.
Currently, among these representatives, two are serving as ministers under the State Council, and 13 are serving at the vice-ministerial level. They serve as deputy governors (of provinces), vice-chairpersons (of autonomous regions), and deputy mayors (of municipalities directly under the central government) in a majority of the 31 provinces and equivalent administrative units, and close to 10,000 of them occupy leadership roles in various governments and judicial organs above the county level.
Formation of China’s Political Party System
The forming of a nation’s political party system is determined by many factors, including its history and culture, and its national circumstances. China’s political party system is an inevitable result of China’s modern social development. It is the product of historical and objective necessity, and not the result of some party or leader’s random design.
After the First Opium War (1840-1842), Chinese society experienced huge turning points and two profound changes occurred: First, to the social structure. A social structure that had formerly been a relative homogenous unit became diversified, and landlords and peasants were joined by the bourgeoisie, workers, and the petty bourgeoisie. The structure of the bourgeoisie was also complex, including the big comprador-bourgeoisie, the big bureaucrat-capitalists, and the national bourgeoisie. Second, to the principal social contradictions. It changed from the conflicts of interests between landlords and peasants to those between the people and feudalism and between the Chinese nation and imperialist powers. Fighting for national independence and liberation of the people against the rule of the imperialists and feudal bureaucrats became the principal mission.
This specific circumstance had a direct influence on the establishment and development of China’s political party system. First of all, the multi-class social structure of China’s modern society made the emergence of multiple modern political parties with different natures possible. Secondly, the above factors combined made cooperation between different political parties of different classes both necessary and possible. Thirdly, the establishment of multiparty cooperation between the CPC and the non-communist political parties derived from the commonality of their political goals, together with the strong leadership of the CPC. Furthermore, the government of the Nationalist Party of China (Kuomintang, or KMT) insisted on adopting one-party dictatorship, persecuting other non-communist political parties so that they were robbed of opportunities for independent development, and leaving with no other option but to unite their efforts with and fight alongside the CPC.
In the “May Day Slogans” published in 1948, the CPC raised the proposal to cooperate with non-communist political parties and found a democratic coalition government, which received an immediate and active response from these political parties. On January 22, 1949, 55 leaders of the non-communist parties, including Li Jishen, Shen Junru, Ma Xulun, Guo Moruo, and Tan Pingshan, jointly issued a statement titled“Opinions on the Current Political Situation”, expressing their willingness “to dedicate their humble service and follow the leadership of the CPC all the way” and their opinion that “there will never be negotiation or reconciliation between the revolutionaries and the counter-revolutionaries”. “No tolerance for the reactionaries and centrism in the people’s democratic front.” As a response, during the Second Plenary Session of the Seventh CPC Central Committee in March 1949, Mao Zedong stated clearly that “our Party’s policy of long-term cooperation with non-Party democrats should be clearly established in the thinking and work of the whole Party.”(2)
From June 15 to September 20, 1949, the CPPCC Preparatory Meeting was convened in Beiping (later renamed Beijing), followed by the First Plenary Session of the CPPCC from September 21 to 30, 1949. Historic documents, such as the Organic Law of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference, the Organic Law of the Central People’s Government of the People’s Republic of China, and the “Common Program of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference”, were drafted, discussed, and adopted during the conference. The CPPCC and the participation of the CPC and the non-communist parties was an important milestone in the establishment of China’s multiparty cooperation system.
Functions of the Chinese Political Party System
Political functions are determined by political structures. Different political party systems show significant differences in their functions. The integration of one-party rule and multiparty participation determines the unique political features of China’s political party system – maintaining political stability, political appointments for social integration, political participation, and democratic oversight.
1. Maintaining Political Stability
China is a large multi-ethnic nation with more than 1.3 billion people. Certain historical features of its social and economic development determine that there has been a latecomer which is now on its way catching up with and overtaking the former and existing leaders. The difficulty, complexity, and multi-dimensionality of China’s modernization have determined that the essential prerequisite is a stable social and political environment. Stability is the top priority.
One-party rule by the CPC, which plays the strong role as the leadership core, helps avoid the kind of political instability that derives from political parties being locked in strife and frequent government changes under a multiparty competition system. Multiparty cooperation and multiparty participation increase the number of channels for expressing the interests of the people under the circumstances of social stratification and polarized interests, facilitating the settlement and eradication of conflicts of interests. Thus, the social discontent provoked by the political exclusion of other political parties under one-party dictatorship is avoided to a degree. Therefore, the Chinese political party system plays a unique role in maintaining social stability.
2. Political Appointments for Social Integration
The function of political appointments refers to a party’s role in discovering, nurturing, and selecting talented individuals for promotion, using its organization and activities as the platform.
In the Chinese system, the CPC in its leadership position attracts a wealth of talent, as do all the non-communist political parties; this forms a dense cohort of highly capable individuals. All the participating parties train and deliver large numbers of public servants to serve the state.
Social integration is a prerequisite for social development. The political party system is an important mechanism for social integration in modern societies.
The CPC is the governing party, with a strict and extensive organization, well-developed theories as its guidance, and strong leadership capability to mobilize and rally the public. Non-communist political parties are participating parties with extensive social connections. Close and friendly cooperation between the governing party and the participating parties is conducive to smooth and frequent channeling of the demands and desire of the public from all walks of life, which can then be forwarded to the decision center and manifested in various policies for social and economic development. Thus, the political resources of the whole society are effectively integrated for the concerted effort of national development.
3. Political Participation
Political participation refers to the participation of social members in political activities in various ways and their ability to influence national policy-making. Political party systems are an effective guarantee of public political participation in modern societies.
The CPC-led multiparty cooperation system provides institutionalized organization, procedures, and channels for society’s political participation. This is apparent thus: First of all, the CPC consults with non-communist party members and prominent individuals without any party affiliation on major issues such as state policies, national social and economic development plans, and the appointment of state leaders through symposiums. They keep each other informed and exchange thoughts, ideas, and opinions. Furthermore, non-communist party members and prominent individuals without any party affiliation submit written opinions and recommendations to the CPC on major issues in national political, social, and economic development through multiple channels, based on research. This forms an important political mechanism to solicit public opinion and cater to the public interest, which supplements the people’s congresses within the political system.
4. Democratic Oversight
Political power needs oversight. Power without oversight runs the risk of being abused. The most effective oversight over political power is oversight between political parties.
Due to the CPC’s status as the sole governing party and the extent of its power, oversight becomes especially important. The multiparty cooperation system plays such a role to some degree. In the CPC’s governance process, non-communist party members, in their role as participants in the people’s congresses, in government organs, and in judicial organs, participate in consultation on state policies and the appointment of state leaders. They also submit personal opinions, recommendations, and criticism on the drafting and implementation of national policies, laws and regulations, and on the conduct and integrity of CPC members, CPC officials, and public servants in state organs. This is a form of oversight over the governing party by the non-communist parties, an interparty oversight and exogenous oversight, which is different to the CPC’s intraparty oversight.
Future Prospect of Party Politics in China
The CPC-led multiparty cooperation system is a non-competitive one, which allows parties other than the CPC to exist legally and share political power, but forbids them to compete for ruling status.
In comparison to single party systems, China’s current political party system provides a variety of options to those with political aspirations, and gives the people more channels to further their interests. It establishes an intraparty oversight and constraint mechanism and paves a facilitating pathway to further develop and improve party politics. It has prevented the emergence of political parties outside the system, which is of vital importance in maintaining the stability of the political system.
In comparison to competitive multiparty systems, this system is effective in inhibiting destructive political competition where there is underdevelopment of democracy, making a cooperative political party system and a new form of democracy – consultative democracy – possible and reducing political instability in the process of modernization.
The strength of China’s political party system is the multiparty cooperation system, which is recognized and accepted by all political forces and conducive in forming a stable and highly effective government supported by the great majority. The current system in China is stable and efficient. A more pressing problem is how to achieve benign interactivity and mutual oversight between the CPC and non-communist parties in order for the government to maintain this level of support and ensure public satisfaction with China’s governance.
Concentration of power enables pooling of resources to address major issues and significant necessary adjustments to be made rapidly to the existing pattern of interests. At the same time, it also brings the risk of errors, corruption, and isolation from the people.
How could the CPC reduce errors to the minimum, rein in corruption, and represent the interests of the people at all times without interparty oversight or constraint? The CPC has adopted the organizational strategy of attracting and enlisting talent from far and wide, the rational approach of seeking truth from facts, and the internal governance mechanism of self-criticism and self-cleansing, and has kept the tradition of maintaining close ties with the people. This has helped overcome the drawbacks of concentration of power to a considerable degree, and maintained development and reform on a healthy track in general.
Strict governance over the Party has given the CPC the capacity to govern, cleanse, and renew itself, since the CPC’s 18th National Congress in 2012. This clearly demonstrates that the Chinese system can seize the advantages of concentration of power while overcoming its drawbacks.
(1) Four Cardinal Principles: keeping to the path of socialism, upholding the people’s democratic dictatorship, upholding the leadership of the Communist Party of China, and upholding Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought. – Tr.
(2) Mao Zedong: “Report to the Second Plenary Session of the Seventh Central Committee of the Communist Party of China”, Selected Works of Mao Zedong, Vol. IV, Eng. ed., Foreign Languages Press, Beijing, 1961, p. 373.