第二节 句子
句子是最大的语法结构单位,不同的词类(如:名词、动词、副词)和不同的语法结构(如:单词、短语、子句)在这个单位里起着不同的作用。这一章要探讨的就是汉语句子和英语句子在结构、一致性和连贯性方面的差异。
一、句子结构(或句型)
句子结构是表达一个完整意思的句子中所有语法单位的排列顺序,是句子的基本语法模式,被用作造句的范例,就像数学、物理、化学中的公式一般。英语和汉语句子均有“主语+谓语+宾语”这种结构,但是这两种语言在句子结构方面的差异远超过其相似性,这些差异会影响到学生的英语学习。
1.英语句子分类
句子按其结构可以为分三类:简单句、并列句和复合句。
简单句即只包含一个主谓结构的句子。
① He likes playing football.他喜欢踢足球。
② I was born in 1980.我出生于1980年。
并列句由两个或两个以上的简单句连接而成。两个简单句是平行并列的关系,由连接词连接。
③ She can jump far, but she can't jump high.她能跳得远,但她跳得不高。
④ The little girl likes reading, and she likes drawing, too.这个小女孩喜欢阅读,她也喜欢画画。
复合句包括两个或两个以上的分句,分句之间的关系是主从关系,只有一个分句处于主要地位,叫主句。其他分句都附属于主句,叫从句。从句由从属连词引导。如:
I have to review the lessons because we will have an exam tomorrow.我必须复习功课,因为明天我们有考试。
可见,并列句和复合句都是建立在简单句的基础之上的,掌握了简单句的基本结构,即可写出正确的并列句和复合句。
2.简单句的7种基本句型
组成简单句的各个部分叫句子成分,在总结简单句的7种基本句型之前,须先了解这些成分,主要包括:主语、谓语、宾语(直接宾语和间接宾语)、宾语补足语、表语(即主语补足语)、定语和状语。
(1)组成简单句的基本成分
1)主语是句子所要说明的人或事物,是句子的主体。一般由名词、名词短语、代词、数词、名词化的形容词、不定式短语、动名词、主语从句等来充当,位于句首。如:
① The table is new.(名词作主语)
② The secret of success is perseverance.(名词短语作主语)
③ She looks young.(代词作主语)
④ Many of the students performed well in the exam.(数词作主语)
⑤ The rich are very generous to the poor.(名词化的形容词作主语)
⑥ To study abroad is my goal.(动词不定式作主语)
⑦ Seeing is believing.(动名词作主语)
⑧ That she was not at home was not true.(主语从句作主语)
2)谓语是用来说明主语“干什么”或“怎么样”的。谓语或谓语部分里的关键词必须用动词。谓语位于主语之后,且与主语在人称和数的方面应该保持一致。谓语可以是一个实义动词,可以是情态动词或助动词加一个实义动词,还可以是系动词,系动词不能单独作谓语,得跟表语一起作谓语。如:
① I often read books in the morning.(实义动词作谓语)
② She can speak Chinese.(情态动词加实义动词作谓语)
③ I have not finished my job today.(助动词加实义动词作谓语)
④ This idea sounds great.(系动词加表语作谓语)
⑤ I am a teacher.(系动词加表语作谓语)
3)宾语表示及物动词的动作对象或内容,通常位于动词之后或用于介词后构成介宾短语。一般由名词、代词、不定式、动名词、宾语从句来充当。如:
① The father is criticizing his son.(名词作宾语)
② Pass me the book, please.(代词和名词分别作间接宾语和直接宾语)
③ I want to go shopping now.(动词不定式作宾语)
④ She enjoys doing housework.(动名词作宾语)
⑤ I think that she is competent for the job.(宾语从句作宾语)
4)表语是用来说明主语的身份、特征、性质或状态的词,所以又称之为主语补足语。常位于系动词之后,由名词、形容词、副词、介词短语、不定式、动名词来充当。如:
① They are students.(名词作表语)
② The leaves turn green in Spring.(形容词作表语)
③ The TV is off.(副词作表语)
④ I was at home yesterday.(介词短语作表语)
⑤ Her job is to clean the whole building.(不定式作表语)
5)定语是用来修饰名词或代词的。凡是有名词、代词的地方都可以有定语。通常情况下,名词、形容词、数词作名词的前置定语,放在被修饰的名词之前,副词、不定式、介词短语、现在分词短语、过去分词短语、定语从句等作名词的后置定语,放在被修饰的名词之后。但是,形容词修饰由any、every、no、some等加body、one、thing构成的不定代词时须后置。如:
① The boy dancer is my former student.(名词作定语)
② Girls like everything beautiful.(形容词作不定代词everything的后置定语)
③ This pretty girl is my classmate.(形容词作定语)
④ The three foreigners were from America.(数词作定语)
⑤ I don't like the man upstairs.(副词作定语)
⑥ Do you have something to buy?(不定式作后置定语)
⑦ The house built last year is amazing.(过去分词短语作后置定语)
⑧ The boy crying over there was lost.(现在分词短语作后置定语)
⑨ The woman in gray is my mom.(介词短语作后置定语)
⑩ The book that I bought yesterday is written by Yan Geling.(定语从句作后置定语)
6)状语是用来修饰动词、形容词、副词或整个句子的成分。状语表示动作、行为发生的时间、原因、地点、方式、条件、目的或程度等,因此,状语可分为时间状语、原因状语、地点状语、方式状语、条件状语、目的状语以及程度状语等。状语一般由副词、不定式、介词短语来充当。状语通常放在句末,有时也可以放在句首或句中。如:
① He writes carefully.He walks slowly.(副词作方式状语,修饰动词)
② This material is environmentally friendly.(副词作状语,修饰形容词)
③ He runs very slowly.(程度副词作方式状语,修饰副词)
④ Unfortunately, he lost all of his money.(程度副词作状语,修饰整个句子)
⑤ Without your help, I can't finish the work.(介词短语作条件状语,修饰整个句子)
⑥ We must work hard to achieve success(.动词不定式作谓语动词的目的状语)
一个句中有几个并列状语时,其顺序较灵活,但一般是:方式状语→地点状语→时间状语。如:
⑦ He worked hard at his lessons last year.(方式状语,时间状语)
⑧ I found a lost pen outside our school yesterday morning.(地点状语、时间状语)
⑨ He was walking slowly outside the park at that moment.(方式状语、地点状语、时间状语)
频度副词often、always、usually、sometimes、never等在句中的位置:位于情态动词、系动词、助动词之后,实义动词之前。
① You can never tell what he will do.
② He is often late.
③ He is always helping others.
④ He often came late.
7)补语用来对句子中的某些成分(宾语、主语等)进行补充说明。主语补足语即表语;宾语补足语是用来说明宾语的意义、状态等的成分。有些及物动词接了宾语之后其意义仍不完整,还需要其他词来补充说明宾语,这样的词被称为宾语补足语。宾语补足语和宾语构成逻辑上的主谓关系,换句话说,在意思上,宾语相当于宾补的主语。带有宾语补足语的一般句型为:某些及物动词(如make, call等)+宾语+宾语补足语。宾补可以由名词、形容词、副词、不定式短语、分词、介词短语和从句来充当。如:
① Her parents named her Yiming.(名词作宾语her的补足语)
② Nowadays, people like to paint their walls gray.(形容词作宾语walls的补足语)
③ Open the window to let the fresh air in.(副词作宾语air的补足语)
④ Parents are supposed to help their young kids to preview and review their lessons.(不定式短语作宾语kids的补足语)
⑤ We found her dancing in the classroom.(现在分词dancing作宾语her的补足语)
⑥ I will have my hair cut tomorrow.(过去分词cut作宾语hair的补足语)
⑦ She found her books on the desk in good order.(介词短语作宾语books的补足语)
⑧ We will make our city what your city is now(.从句作宾语our city的补足语)
含有宾语补足语的句子在变成被动语态,宾语作主语时,原来的宾语补足语就成了主语补足语。如:
⑨ She was named Yiming by her parents.(名词作主语补足语)
⑩ She was found dancing in the classroom.(现在分词作主语补足语)
⑪ The books were found on the desk in good order.(介词短语作主语补足语)
(2)七个基本句型
在了解了简单句的基本成分之后,以下介绍简单句的七个基本句型:
1)S+Vi(主语+不及物动词)。
不及物动词本身就可以表达完整的意思,不需要宾语及补足语。这些动词常见的有:come、go、rise、happen、exist、arrive、disappear、fall、happen、change、cry等。如:
① Things change.
② She cried.
2)S+Vt+O(主语+及物动词+宾语)。
及物动词须跟有宾语才可以表达完整的意思,这些动词常见的有give、make、receive、forget、show、raise、like、buy、see等,可以充当宾语的词或短语参见如上概述。如:
My mother enjoys parties.
3)S+V-Link+S.C.(主语+系动词+主语补足语)。
系动词包括表示转变或结果的系动词(如:get、become、grow、turn、come、go、prove等)以及表示状态的系动词(如:am、is、are、look、seem、sound、smell、feel、taste、appear、remain、keep、stay等)。系动词本身不能表达完整的意思,需要形容词、名词、介词短语等来补充说明主语,所以称之为主语补足语,也叫表语。如:
① The milk has gone bad.
② The girl becomes a young lady.
③ It's getting cold.
④ The medicine proves effective.
⑤ His father is an engineer.
⑥ You should keep quiet in the classroom.
4)S+Vi+A(主语+不及物动词+状语)。
不及物动词后虽然不需要宾语及补足语,但有时可有副词、介词短语等状语修饰动词。
① A disastrous earthquake happened in 2008 in Sichuan.(主语+不及物动词+时间状语+地点状语)
② The operation progressed smoothly.(主语+不及物动词+副词)
注意:有些“主语+不及物动词+地点副词”的句型可使用倒装结构。如:
① There stands a tree.(“There”作地点状语,正常语序为A tree stands there.)
② Here comes the man.(“Here”作地点状语,正常语序为The man comes here.)
5)S+Vt+OI+OD(主语+及物动词+间接宾语+直接宾语)。
有些及物动词需要跟双宾语才能表达一个完整的意思,常见的这类动词有:give、send、pass、bring、tell、teach、show、award、lend、buy、hand、recommend、take、read、write、leave等。这样的及物动词被称为授予动词,其特点就是要接两个宾语,指人的叫间接宾语,指物的叫直接宾语。如:
① My husband sent me a Christmas gift.
② She wrote her parents a letter.
③ Pass me the salt, please.
注意:及物动词之后跟双宾语,一般情况下,间接宾语在前,直接宾语在后,如果直接宾语是代词,则需要把直接宾语放在间接宾语之前。如果把直接宾语放在间接宾语之前,间接宾语前需要加介词to或for。间接宾语前加介词to的动词有:give、tell、sell、lend、show、teach、send、write、hand、bring、return、pass、leave、offer等。间接宾语前加介词for的动词有:get、choose、make、buy、order、do、sing、play等。如:
① Can you pass it to me, please?
② Tom's mother bought some new toys for him.
6)S+Vt+O+C(主语+及物动词+宾语+宾语补足语)。
此句型中的及物动词也可以称为“不完全及物动词”,因为此类动词后面只跟一个宾语不能把句意完全表达清楚,后面必须接补语意思才会完整。如:He advised me to read that book.如果省略to read that book,句意则不完整。常见的这类动词有:see、let、smell、feel、drive、find、tell、hear、imagine、keep、make、notice、allow、ask、start、watch、believe、call、wish、know、cause、catch、want、regard、consider等。可充当宾语补足语的词或短语见如上概述。如:
① The teacher wished the students a happy holiday.
② I allowed him to come in.
③ My daughter always makes me laugh.
注意:区分直接宾语和宾语补足语的一个重要标志就是,宾语和宾语补足语之间有逻辑上的主谓关系。如:
We elected her the monitor.(her和monitor分别为宾语和宾语补足语,它们之间有逻辑上的主谓关系,可以理解为:she is the monitor.)
The father gave the boy a new book.(boy和a new book分别为间接宾语和直接宾语,它们之间没有逻辑上的主谓关系)
7)S+Vt+O+A(主语+及物动词+宾语+状语)。
此句型中的及物动词也可以称为“不完全及物动词”,后面必须接状语意思才会完整。如:You must put all the toys upstairs.如果省略upstairs,句意则不完整。常见的这类动词有:see、let、put、find、hear、keep、make、notice、watch等。如:
① I found the lost pen under the desk.
② We should keep the yogurt in the refrigerator.
3.简单句的扩展方法
以上介绍了只含有基本成分的简单句句型,其信息容量有限,如果在七种基本句型的基础上对句子加以扩展,就可以增大句子的信息量,使句子内容更加丰富。英语句子的扩展方法有增添法、并列法和从属法。
(1)增添法
增添法即通过添加各类修饰词和短语对简单句加以扩展。这些添加的修饰成分可以是形容词、副词、代词、数词、名词等,也可以是介词短语、分词短语、不定式短语和动名词短语,将它们按照语法规则放在正确的位置,在句中充当定语或状语,使句子的信息量增加,内容更加具体生动。
① My elder and wiser sister gave me some good advice.(形容词性物主代词my以及形容词elder和wiser修饰sister,形容词good修饰advice)
② I have something particular to ask you.(形容词particular作后置定语修饰something)
③ Reluctantly, she turned down the music.(副词reluctantly修饰整个句子)
④ Fruit, such as apples、pears、bananas、oranges、provides people with vitamins essential to people's health.(such as引导的同位语后置修饰fruit;形容词短语essential to…作后置定语修饰vitamins)
注意:类似于such as用来引导同位语的词或词组还有that is, like, for example, in other words,它们通常置于被修饰的词之后。
A tall intelligent young Chinese debater's eloquent speech particularly attracted the audience's attention.(名词speech被多个修饰词修饰:A tall intelligent young Chinese debater's eloquent)
注意:在英语中,当一个名词同时被几个修饰词修饰时,它们的位置大体为:限定词(包括冠词、物主代词、指示代词、不定代词等),数词,一般描述性形容词,表示大小、长短、高低的形容词,表示形状的形容词,表示年龄和新旧的形容词,表示颜色的形容词,表示国籍、地区、出处的形容词,表示物质、材料的形容词,表示用途、类别的形容词。
All the members of the project group discussed the research schedule quite carefully in the laboratory last night.(谓语动词discuss同时被程度副词quite,方式副词carefully,地点状语in the laboratory和时间状语last night所修饰)
注意:如果句子中同时有几个副词修饰语,其位置应该为:程度副词、方式副词、地点副词和时间副词。
① We pay honor to Qu Yuan by celebrating the Dragon Boat Festival.(由by引导的方式状语修饰谓语动词pay)
② Being the hometown of Mozart, Salzburg in Austria is the birthplace of classical music and waltz.(现在分词短语Being…在句中作状语)
③ Annoyed by the hotel receptionist, Mr. Henry made a complaint to the manager.(过去分词短语annoyed by …在句中作原因状语)
注意:现在分词和过去分词短语在句中作状语,相当于省略了主语和连词的状语从句,之所以省略主语,是因为分词的逻辑主语与主句的主语一致。现在分词和过去分词作状语的区别在于现在分词含有主动的意义,分词与主句主语的关系是主动关系;过去分词短语含有被动的意义,分词与主句主语的关系是被动关系。分词也可以有其逻辑主语,逻辑主语常常是名词或代词,二者构成独立主格。独立主格由with来引导,with常被省略,在句中常作状语,表示时间、原因、条件、方式、伴随或补充说明等,一般置于句首或句末。如:
① He is lying on the bed, his eyes closed.(独立主格his eyes closed在句中作状语,补充说明主句)
② To be economically prosperous, China will carry out more flexible policies of opening to the outside world.(不定式短语作目的状语,修饰整个句子)
③ Today we are going to discuss how to improve our oral English more efficiently.(how+不定式短语作谓语动词discuss的宾语)
④ It took us three years to implement our first research project.(it为形式主语,动词不定式短语为真正的主语)
⑤ Taking effective measures will prevent some officials from abusing their power and enjoying privileges.(动名词短语Taking…在句中作主语,abusing…and enjoying…作介词宾语)
(2)并列法
可以把两个或两个以上的简单句使用并列连词、副词或分号连接在一起,这种方法扩展而成的句子就是上文提到的第二种句子类型,叫做并列句。并列法的另一形式即把两个或更多的具有相同语法结构的句子或句子成分以同一语法形式或修饰方式平行地组合起来,表达同等重要的信息,这种结构既避免了不必要的重复,又扩展了信息内容,有时还可以起到加强语气的作用,这种方式形成的句子在结构上是平等的,因此,统称为平行结构,从句子类型上来讲,平行结构的句子可能是简单句,可能是并列句,也可能是复合句。
1)并列句。
并列句是使用并列连词(如:for、and、nor、but、or、yet、so等)、连接副词(如:furthermore、besides、moreover、also、however、nevertheless、still、nonetheless、otherwise、therefore、consequently、thus、accordingly、hence等)或分号将两个或两个以上的简单句连接而成的句子。
用并列连词连接的两个分句之间要使用逗号,其句式可表示为:分句+逗号+连词+分句+句号。如:
① The Japanese have a longer life expectancy than any other people, for their diet is extremely healthful.(for作连词,连接了两个独立的简单句)
② Some of them were injured, but some of them weren't(injured).(but作连词,连接了两个独立的简单句,but后面的简单句省略了injured,因为第一个分句里已经出现了这个词,省略避免了重复)
③ The scenery was beautiful, and the acting superb.(and作连词,连接了两个独立的简单句,and后面的分句省略了was,因为第一个分句里已经出现了这个词,省略避免了重复)
用连接副词衔接两个分句,其句式可表示为:分句+分号+连接副词+逗号+分句+句号。如:
④ The subway in Beijing is clean and efficient; consequently, hundreds of people take it every day.(consequently作连接副词,衔接两个分句)
⑤ The company's sales increased last year; however, the staff's income decreased.(however作连接副词,衔接两个分句)
当两个分句的意义密切相关时,并列句也可以只用分号连接。其句式为:分句+分号+分句。如:
He remained modest; no praise or compliments could affect him.
2)平行结构。
把两个或更多具有相同语法结构的句子或句子成分以同一语法形式或修饰方式平行地组合起来,表达同等重要的信息,以这种方式形成的句子结构就是平行结构。使用平行结构扩展而成的句子不一定是并列句,这取决于表达平行意义的语法结构是词、短语、还是从句,抑或是独立分句。它更像是一种修辞手段,类似于我们常讲的排比句,可以起到加强语气的作用。
词或短语表达的平行结构为简单句。如:
① Chris is a boy of creativity and consideration.(两个名词表达的平行结构)
② If you want to earn a satisfactory grade in the training program, you must be punctual, courteous and conscientious.(三个形容词表达的平行结构)
③ In matters of principle, stand like a rock;in matters of taste, swim with the current.(By Thomas Jefferson)(两个介词短语表达的平行结构)
④ One ought, every day at least, to hear a little song, read a good poem, see a fine picture, and if it were possible, to speak a few reasonable words.(By Goethe)(四个动词不定式短语表达的平行结构)
⑤ I spent the day cleaning the house, reading a novel and watching a movie(.三个动名词短语表达的平行结构)
从句表达的平行结构为复合句。如:
We are looking for a manager who can think logically, who can analyze carefully, and who can make decisions realistically.(三个并列定语从句表达的平行结构)
句子表达的平行结构为并列句。如:
Should scientists do research, or should they teach, or should they work in industry?(三个独立分句表达的平行结构)
(3)从属法
从属法即把两个意思有联系但并不同等重要的简单句用某种手段连接起来,使一个句子从属于另一个句子,这种方法扩展而成的句子就是上文提到的第三种句子类型,即复合句。从属法扩展句子有三种主要方式:用名词从句、形容词从句以及用副词从句扩展。
1)用名词从句扩展。
名词从句即在句中起名词作用的从句,包括主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句。引导名词从句的词有:连词(that、if、whether),连接代词(who、whose、whom、whoever、what、whatever、which、whichever),连接副词(how、why、when、where)。
主语从句即在句中充当主语的从句,它替换了句中的主语,从而使句子得以扩展。如:
① That you have passed the exam is sheer luck.
② Whether he will come or not is not certain.
③ What I am looking for is a movie by Tom Hanks.
④ Whatever parents do and say has some effects on their kids.
⑤ When and how we go to America is not decided.
注意:为了保持句子平衡,避免头重脚轻,主语从句常用it作形式主语,将主语从句后置。但不是所有的主语从句都可以用it作形式主语,上面句子中的③和④就不适合改写为it作形式主语的句子,①②⑤用it作形式主语后可改为:
① It is sheer luck that you have passed the exam.
② It is not certain whether he will come or not.
⑤ It is not decided when and how we go to America.
用it作形式主语,将主语从句后置的情况相当多,有些已形成固定的搭配,常见的有:
④ It+be+名词+that从句,如:
It's a pity that you can't attend our wedding ceremony.
⑤ It+be+形容词+that从句,如:
It is evident that modest exercise is good to people's health.
⑥ It+不及物动词+that从句,如:
It appears that you don't have much choice.
⑦ It+be+过去分词+that从句,如:
It is estimated that more than 90 percent of lung cancer victims are smokers.
宾语从句即在句中充当宾语的从句,它替换了句中的宾语,从而使句子得以扩展。宾语从句除了作及物动词的宾语外,还可以作动词+副词、形容词、不定式、分词、动名词及介词的宾语。如:
⑧ I believe that it will be a fine day tomorrow.
⑨ Can you find out how many problems we have?
⑩ I am glad that you invite me to come here.
⑪ It's important to remember that your main task is to study hard.
⑫ I spend the whole day reviewing what I have learnt in the past 3 days.
⑬ We are talking about who should go there.
动词find、feel、consider、make sure、believe等后面有宾语补足语的时候,则需要用it作形式宾语,而将宾语从句后置。如:
She believes it a truth that she will be alone.(it为形式宾语,真正的宾语为“that从句”)
当主句的谓语动词为表示感知的“believe、think、expect、suppose”等时,常把对从句的否定放在主句中。如:
Her father doesn't believe that she can manage it.
表语从句即放在系动词之后的从句,在句中充当表语,它替换了句中的表语,从而合句子得以扩展。如:
My opinion is that her advice should be practical.
表语从句除了用如上连词、连接代词和连接副词引导外,还可以用as if/though, because引导。如:
It looks as if it will rain.
That is because I practiced a lot.
同位语从句用于对其所修饰的名词作进一步解释,说明名词的具体内容。同位语从句一般跟在抽象名词之后,如:hope、wish、fact、belief、news、idea、promise、information、conclusion、order、suggestion、problem、thought、word、report、decision、possibility等。如:
We received the order that we should finish the task at once.(that引导的同位语从句用来解释the order的内容)
Margaret told me her final decision that she would go to Egypt next month.(that引导的同位语从句用来解释the decision的内容)
I have no impression how we met each other at first.(how引导的同位语从句用来解释impression的内容)
We are talking about the problem whether we should buy a new car.(whether引导的同位语从句用来解释problem的内容。)
当主句的谓语较短,而同位语从句较长时,同位语从句常后置。如:
The idea came to his mind that he had put his key in the drawer.(that引导的同位语从句用来解释the idea的内容)
注意:无论是哪种名词从句,只要是连接代词和连接副词衔接的从句,都应遵循“连接代词/连接副词+主语+谓语+其他成分”的陈述语序。
2)用形容词从句扩展。
形容词从句也称为定语从句。定语从句通过将句中的定语用句子来表达,从而使句子得以扩展。定语从句一般放在它所修饰的名词之后,这种名词叫先行词。定语从句有限定性与非限定性之分。限定性定语从句是先行词不可缺少的定语,否则主句的意思就会不完整,从句和主句的关系十分密切,不需要逗号将主句与从句隔开。非限定性定语从句是先行词的附加说明,即使删除也不会影响全句的主要意思,从句和主句之间用逗号隔开。引导定语从句的词有关系代词和关系副词。前者在定语从句中充当主语、宾语、定语等,包括as、who、whom、whose、that、which;后者在从句中作状语,包括when、where、why。
限定性定语从句:
① I have a classmate whose father is a famous doctor(. whose在从句中作定语,修饰father)
② The boys who are playing chess are from our school(. who在从句中作主语)
③ I like the novel that I read this morning.(that在从句中作宾语)
④ I have never heard such a story as he tells.(as在从句中作宾语)
⑤ She still remembers the day when she first came to Beijing.(when在从句中作时间状语)
⑥ Yesterday is the day that I will never forget.(尽管先行词day是时间,但因为它在定语从句中作宾语,所以用that引导)
⑦ The house where I lived ten years ago has been rented to others.(where在从句中作地点状语)
⑧ Beijing is a city that I like best.(尽管先行词city是地点,但因为它在定语从句中作宾语,所以用that引导)
关系代词在定语从句中作介词宾语时,从句常由“介词+关系代词”引导。如:
① This is the city in which I grew up.(in which引导了定语从句,in还原在定语从句中即为:I grew up in the city.)
② The father bought the magazine for which his daughter asked.(for which引导了定语从句,for还原在定语从句中即为:his daughter asked for the magazine)
③ We will go to hear the famous singer about whom we have often talked.(about whom引导了定语从句,about还原在定语从句中即为:we have often talked about the singer)
非限定性定语从句:
① His mother, who is a teacher, is very strict with him.
② China, which is founded in 1949, is becoming more and more powerful.
③ As is known to all, China is a developing country.(as引导非限定性定语从句,修饰整个主句)
④ He is from the south, as we can see from his accent.(as引导非限定性定语从句,修饰整个主句)
注意:as和which均可引导非限定性定语从句,which只能放在主句之后,as可前可后。
注意:同位语从句与定语从句都是放在某一名词或代词后面,但它们有如下区别:
首先,定语从句对所修饰的名词有限定作用,而同位语从句对它前面的名词只做进一步的说明和解释。如:
① The idea that he told me just now is impractical.(that引导的定语从句对前面名词起修饰作用)
② The news that he will study abroad is true.(that引导的同位语从句解释了前面名词的内容)
其次,定语从句的先行词(即被修饰的词)可以是名词、代词、主句的一部分或整个主句,而同位语从句前面的名词只能是抽象名词。如:
③ The girl whom he loves is an excellent dancer.(定语从句,修饰the girl)
④ Her husband got promoted, which made her very happy.(定语从句,修饰整个主句)
⑤ The possibility that this method will work is being discussed now.(同位语从句,解释the possibility的内容)
最后,定语从句的引导词在从句中作成分,而同位语从句的引导词不在从句中作成分。
⑥ The idea that he gave was wonderful.(定语从句,that在从句中作gave的宾语)
⑦ The idea that the earth is flat has long been discredited.(同位语从句,that在从句中不作任何成分)
3)用副词从句扩展。
副词从句也称为状语从句,可以用来修饰主句中的谓语、定语、状语或是整个句子。状语从句通过将句中的时间、地点、原因、目的、结果、条件、方式、让步、比较关系等状语用句子来表示,达到扩展句子的目的。不同的状语从句有不同的引导词。
时间状语从句:when、whenever、while、as、before、after、as soon as、until、since、by the time、every time、the minute
When she came in, I was eating.
My father had left for London just before the letter arrived.
After we had finished the work, we went home.
I didn't wake up until I heard the alarm clock.
She has been living a hard life since her husband died.
I will call you as soon as I get there.
By the time I got there, the bus had already gone.
I feel sick every time I see sea food.
地点状语从句:where、wherever、anywhere
Where there is no rain, farming is difficult or impossible.
Remember I am waiting for you wherever you go.
原因状语从句:because、as、since、for
He is absent because he is ill.
As the weather is cold, I stay at home.
He must be in trouble, for he is absent today.
注意:for引导原因状语从句,只能放在主句之后。
目的状语从句:so、so that、in order that、lest、for fear that
I will run slowly so that you can catch up with me.
He wrote the name down for fear that he should forget it.
You'd better take more clothes in case the weather is cold.
注意:in case, for fear that, lest引导的从句,谓语动词可用虚拟语气:should+动词原形。若不用虚拟语气,要用一般现在时或过去时。
结果状语从句:that、so… (that) …、such…that…、with the result that…
Nothing more was heard from him so that we began to wonder if he was dead.
He's such a good person that we mustn't blame him.
方式状语从句:as、just as…so…、as if、as though
Always treat others as you would be treated by.
As water is to fish,so air is to man.
They looked at me as if I were mad.
注意:as if/though引出的状语从句谓语多用虚拟语气,表示与事实相反,有时也用陈述语气,表示所说的情况是事实或实现的可能性大。
比较状语从句:than…、as…as…、not so (as) …as
They work harder than we do.
You know as much about that as I do.
She is not so/as outgoing as her classmates.
让步状语从句:though、as、although、even if/though、in spite of the fact、while、no matter+疑问词、疑问词+ever、whether…or…
Although it isn't dangerous,the teacher didn't allow them to swim.
I will go to travel even though the weather is bad.
No matter what the matter may be,we should do our best.
Whatever happened,he would not mind.
Whether you believe it or not,it is true.
Though和as引导的让步状语从句可以用倒装结构,将形容词、副词、分词、实义动词等提前。如:
Child as he was, he knew what was the right thing to do.
条件状语从句:if, unless, providing/provided that, suppose, supposing, as(so)long as, if only(要是…该多好,谓语动词用虚拟结构)
If the rain stops, I shall go out for a walk.
You can't learn English well unless you work hard.
If only I were rich.
注意:无论是哪种副词从句,从句位于主句之前,须在从句之后使用逗号;若从句位于主句之后,则无须使用逗号。
4.英语句式的特征
综合上述对英语句型及其扩展句型的概述,可将英语句式的特征总结如下:
(1)主语突出性
从上述七种简单句的基本句型可以看出英语是一种主语突出的语言,即主语和谓语是句子结构中最基本的语法单位,几乎每一个句子都得有主语,这样才是语法正确的句子。主语决定着谓语的数和情态。英语句子中的主语通常是名词、代词或起名词作用的短语或从句,它通常出现在谓语动词之前,可以是动词动作的发出者也可以是动词动作的受动者。可能有人会说祈使句不就没有主语吗?如:
Hurry up!
Don't walk on the grass.
Do work hard.
其实,祈使句作为用来发出命令或者提出请求和建议的句型,其主语是被省略了,给任何一个祈使句加主语“你”,句意不会发生任何变化。因此,可以说,祈使句是一种特殊的,将主语隐含或内嵌在表面结构中的一种特殊句型。
(2)无人称句
没有提及谁或什么做过或经历某事的一类句子。英语中,主语可以是人或者其他有生命的词,但是表达具体行为的动词也可以跟表达抽象概念、不能执行动作的无生命的主语搭配。如:
It's my expectation that I can study abroad one day.
It's reported that 90% of lung cancer patients are smokers.
It's cold.
在这三个句式当中主语都用了无生命代词“it”,用它来表达一些抽象概念。前两个句子中的“It”作形式主语,指代“that”从句;最后一个句子中的“It”指天气。无人称句常出现在新闻类、科技类、学术类以及散文写作中。使用没生命的词作主语的优势在于句子可以更加生动、更加易于表达。
(3)被动句式
被动句式指使用被动语态的句式,它表达的是“某件事情由某人完成”的含义。被动句式中的主语由主动句式中的宾语转化而来,谓语动词由“be+过去分词”取代主动句式中的及物动词。英语句式的特征之一就是被动语态的使用频率很高,尤其在科技类的文章中。这个特点也符合英语中无人称句较多的这一风格。
(4)语序影响句意
语序指的是词和短语在句子中的线性排序。在英语中,好几层含义都可以在一个句子中通过复杂的结构清晰地表达出来。语序不同,含义就会不同。如:
Only I worked out the math problem yesterday.(only强调只有我,没有别人)
I only worked out the math problem yesterday.(only强调我只解出了这道数学题,没有做别的)
这组句子表明不同的语序会产生不同的含义,有时,如果句子语序不当,就会产生歧义。如:
My mom put the book on the bookshelf which was bought yesterday.
这个句子中的定语从句“which was bought yesterday”可以被看作用来修饰“bookshelf”,也可以被看作用来修饰“book”,因此句意不明确。可以为:
My mom put the book which was bought yesterday on the bookshelf.
由此可见,为了避免歧义,我们应该把每一个词、短语或从句放在离被修饰词最近的位置。
(5)树形句
英语句子结构就像树一样,从树干开始,不断向外生长出树枝、树杈和树叶,本质上来讲就是在形成轮廓的基础上填充细节。英语这种语言正是通过添加、并列、从属等获得句子的多样性和复杂性。如:
However, even if prediction becomes possible, people who live in areas where earthquakes are a common occurrence will still have to do their best to prevent disasters by building structures that are resistant to ground movement and by being personally prepared.(选自《新视野大学英语》第二版,第三册,unit 6)
在这个句子中,“people … will still have to do their best”是主句,第一个定语从句“who live in areas”用来修饰主语“people”,第二个定语从句“where earthquakes are a common occurrence”用来修饰“areas”,“to prevent disasters”是主句谓语“do their best”的目的状语,两个由by引导的短语作“prevent disasters”的方式状语,“even if…”作主句的让步状语从句。
由此可以看出,英语句子中的主句就像是树干,而其他部分就像附在树干上的树枝、树杈和树叶一样。
5.与汉语句子结构的比较以及汉语对英语的负迁移
英语和汉语句子结构有很多不同的特征,这一部分主要探讨它们之间的差异以及这些差异对中国英语学习者造成的负迁移。
(1)主题突出性语言与主语突出性语言
如上所述,英语是主语突出性语言,而汉语则不同,汉语是主题突出性语言。所谓主题突出性语言指的是以主题和述题为句子结构基本单位的语言。许多汉语句子往往以说话者想要表达的主题开头,但它不一定是主语,而句子的剩余部分表达的是这个主题的内容,被称作述题。主题和述题的概念不同于主语突出性语言中的主词(主语)和述词(谓语),主词和述词指的是句子的语法结构而不是它的信息结构。请看下面句子来理解主题与述题、主词和述词的概念:
As for your dry-cleaning, I will bring it tomorrow.
在这个句子里,主题是as for your dry-cleaning,述题是I will bring it tomorrow.主词是I,述词是will bring it tomorrow.
汉语的主题突出性特征体现在句子结构方面,最大的特点就是松散。据统计,认为英语中使用频率很高的句型“主语+谓语+宾语”在汉语中只占到日常表达的9%,也就是说汉语句子的结构不像英语一样有高度的语法一致性。
汉语作为主题突出性语言,另一明显的特征是日常表达中常常会出现如下无主语的句子:
——明天干什么去?
——去约会。
对于中国学生而言,汉语的这个特征显然会对他们的英语学习产生负迁移,他们可能会输出没有主语的英语句子。而在英语中,一个完整的句子必须得有一个主语和一个谓语,而谓语必须得是限定动词(即形式因主语的人称和数而变化的动词形式)。缺乏主语或谓语动词,意思不完整的句子就是句片。如:
他去商场买口罩,发现已经断货了。
He went to the shop to buy face masks. And found sold out.(错误)
这个句子中的错误在于“And”后面的句子没有主语,动词“found”后面需要接宾语,说明是“什么断货了”,可改为:
He went to the shop to buy face masks and found them sold out.
或者:
He went to the shop to buy face masks and found they were sold out.
He went to the shop to buy face masks. He found they were sold out.
此外,汉语句子中的主题非常宽泛,可以是时间,可以是地点,可以是方式,当然也可以是人或物,如:
① 电脑丢了。
② 昨晚丢了一台电脑。
③ 教室里丢了一台电脑。
受汉语语言特征的影响,中国学生很有可能会将上面三个汉语句子错译为以下英语句子:
① A computer lost.
② Last night lost a computer.
③ In the classroom lost a computer.
这上述三个汉语句子中,划线部分即为句子的主题,但它们不全是句子的主语。第一个句子在含义上具有被动意义,但因为汉语中的被动句不一定有表被动的标识词,学生忽略了这个关键点,就出现了译文中的第一个错误句子。第二和第三个句子,学生混淆了主题和主语。上文已经提到,英语句子必须得有主语,但这两个句子的译文显然缺了主语。以上英文译句可改为:
① A computer was lost.
② A computer was lost yesterday.
③ A computer was lost in the classroom.
从修改后的英语句子可以看出,汉语中的主题被分别翻译成了英语中的主语、时间状语和地点状语。这就向我们展现了英语和汉语在句法安排上的差异。
所以,中国学生今后在写英语句子的时候,首先要找出或认准它的主语和谓语,缺了任何一个都是错句。
(2)人称主语与非人称主语
汉语句子中的主语通常是能完成某种动作的人或有生命的词,虽然英语句子中我们也会用人或有生命的词作主语,但非人称词作主语也很常见。
1)由于汉语常用人称作主语,所以中国学生在英语表达中也习惯用人称作主语。比如,学生习惯写出“People say that…”这样的句子,而不太会用“It's said that…”这样的句型。在以下的汉语句子中,学生往往会不约而同地用人称主语对它们进行翻译:
① 五年里,父母经历了很多艰难险阻。
译文:During the five years, her parents went through many hardships.
② 他认为出国学习很重要。
译文:He thinks that studying abroad is significant.
③ 我突然想到了一个解决办法。
译文:Suddenly I thought of a solution.
④ 老师怎么都想不起他的名字。
译文:The teacher couldn't remember his name at that moment.
⑤ 只要你把英语学好,你就能进外企工作。
译文:As long as you learn English well, you will get a job in a foreign company.
虽然这些英语翻译在语法上没有问题,但它们不够地道、生动和简练,如果用非人称词作主语,感觉就会不同:
⑥ The five years witnessed the hardships of her parents.
⑦ Studying abroad strikes him significant.
⑧ A solution occurred to me suddenly.
⑨ His name slipped the teacher's mind at that moment.
⑩ Learning English well will enable you to get a job in a foreign company.
因此,在英语写作中,要有意识地尝试用非人称词作主语,慢慢形成习惯,这样,我们的作文读起来会更加地道。
(3)主动语态与被动语态
汉语多用主动语态,使用被动语态的频率要比英语少很多。汉语中的被动语态会用到“被、叫、让、给、受、遭受、由、加以、为、所”等信号词。但更多时候,我们会发现一些汉语句子在形式上是主动语态(即没有出现被动语态信号词),可含义上却是被动语态,也就是说它的被动标志不明显。比如:“作业做完了”;“房间打扫了”;“衣服洗完了”。这样的句子都应该使用被动语态,可是由于句子中没有出现被动语态信号词,中国学生很有可能会将它们翻译为主动语态:
My homework finished.
The room cleaned.
The clothes washed.
正确译文为:
My homework has been finished.
The room has been cleaned.
The clothes has been washed.
汉语被动语态和英语被动语态的区别之一在于英语中动作的施动者放在表被动的谓语结构“be+过去分词”的后面,而汉语中施动者放在动词之前。如:
他被狗咬了。——He was beaten by the dog.
这个汉语句子的动作施动者是“狗”,它放在了动词“咬”的前面,而翻译为英语之后,施动者“狗”放在了谓语“was beaten”的后面。
汉语被动语态和英语被动语态的第二个区别是英语被动语态中的“by”通常可以省略,但汉语中仍须保留“被”,因为它除了是被动语态的信号词以外还是引出施动者的词。这一差异使中国学生容易出现的问题就是他们会试图在每一个英语被动语态中保留“by somebody”这一信息,即使这是不太必要的。比如他们在翻译“据大家说……”时,可能会译为:
It is said by everyone that…
在这个例子里,“by everyone”的语法功能很弱,留着它是完全没有必要的,省略掉它也不会让读者迷惑。
此外,是否用人或有生命的词作汉语句子的主语也往往决定着它该用什么样的语态,主语为人或有生命的词且没有表被动的信号词,句子用主动语态,主语为无生命的词,句子用被动语态。但是英语句子没有这种分别。正因如此,中国学生会在无生命的词作主语的情况下采用被动语态。如:
利率上涨了。
门开了。
中国学生很有可能会将以上句子写为:
Interest rates are increased.
The door is opened.
这样的译文语法上是正确的,但意思已经发生了微妙的变化,会被读者认为“利率上涨”和“门开”是有人为之。更恰当的译文为:
Interest rates increase.
The door opens.
另外,有些英语动词的主动形式表达了被动含义,这就让中国学生感到很迷惑,所以中国学生很容易写出以下错误句子:
My bike is missed.
Her voice is sounded melodious.
这两个句子中的“miss”和“sound”本身就可以表达被动含义,不需要将它们变成被动形式。修改后的句子如下:
My bike is missing.
Her voice sounds melodious.
(4)语序不同
对于中国学生而言,决定英语句子的语序是一道大难题,因为汉语的语序较英语而言,不太严格,相对灵活。如:
他为什么不吃饭?
为什么他不吃饭?
译文:Why didn't he have meals?
谁会参加那场比赛?
那场比赛谁会参加?
译文:Who will attend that game?
这两个汉语句子的语序进行了调整却丝毫没有影响其含义,而它们的英文译文的语序却是唯一的。在这两种语言中,主语和谓语的位置几乎是一样的,差别就在于状语、宾语以及修饰语的位置。如:
这所学校20%的学生会被录取到清华和北大这样的名校。
Twenty percent of the students(主语)will be admitted(谓语)by famous universities(方式状语)like Tsinghua University and Beijing University(后置定语)in this school(地点状语).
以上例子中的英文翻译别管有多少修饰词,先把主语和谓语核心词写出来,然后再添加定语和状语。修饰词的顺序首先回答的是“什么”,然后是“如何、为什么、哪儿、给谁等”,最后是“什么时候”。如:
大部分学生都没有意识到他们的英语水平会通过每天早上朗读英语课文有大幅度提升。
Most students(主语)fail to realize(谓语)that their English(宾语从句的主语)will be improved a lot(宾语从句的谓语)by reading the texts aloud(修饰从句谓语动词的方式状语)every morning(修饰从句谓语动词的时间状语).(宾语从句)
就“主语+谓语+宾语”这个句型结构来说,汉语和英语的语序也有差别,如:
中文:我们要买些什么?
译文:What will we buy?
在上述英语疑问句中,宾语(疑问词)要放在句首,而在汉语中,宾语放在句末。
此外,在复合句中,汉语句子的疑问词会出现在从句中,而英语中的疑问词应放在主句句首。这一差异使很多中国学生译出错误句子,如:
中文:你知道他什么时候回来吗?
错误译文:Do you know when he will be back?
正确译文:When do you know he will be back?
另外一个英汉语序的差别是地名,英语地名的表达顺序为由具体到概括、由小及大,而汉语正好相反。如:
中文:他来自于中国山西省太原市的一个小山村。
译文:He is from a small village of Taiyuan in Shanxi province, China.
(5)扇型句式与树型句式
汉语句子的扩展方式类似于扇子,句子的各个组成部分就像扇子的辐条一样,其含义平行地连接到核心主题,各成分之间含义的衔接非常模糊,也就是说,汉语句子没有英语句子中所体现出来的树干和树枝之分,意群之间相互堆叠,没有任何连词,只是在语义上相互关联。如:
中文:天津杂技团的演员们克服了道具多、行李重的困难,乘飞机、坐大巴,长途跋涉了整整一天,来到了安塔利亚。
译文:Overcoming the difficulties of carrying numerous stage properties and heavy luggage, the actors and actresses of the Tianjin Acrobatic Troupe made a long, arduous journey to Antalya by air and by bus for a whole day.
在这个例子中,汉语句子的成分之间没有任何连接词,四个动词短语“克服、乘、长途跋涉、来到”被放在并列的位置,一个接一个堆叠地表达了作者想要表达的含义。在英语翻译中,通过调整语序、使用现在分词结构并增加表目的的动词不定式标识词“to”使句意得以传达。
有些中国学生写英语句子时,沿用了汉语的扇形句式,层层堆叠,导致输出一些错误的英语句子,如:
中文:这是一个漫长的典礼,而且很枯燥。
译文:It is a long ceremony and very boring.
这个例子中不同的句法结构被堆叠放置于平行句式里,导致了错误。“long ceremony”是名词短语,“very boring”是形容词短语,把它们放在由and连接的并列结构里是不对的,应改为:
The ceremony is both long and boring.
再如:
我喜欢旅游、游泳和弹钢琴。
在这个汉语句子中,“旅游、游泳和弹钢琴”作谓语动词“like”的宾语,所以应该使用同样的形式,要么都用“to+v”的形式,要么都用“v-ing”的形式,如若混着用,就会产生错句。这里需要注意的是“旅游”和“游泳”都是单个动词,而“弹钢琴”是“动词+宾语”的结构。因此,可以翻译为:
I like traveling, swimming and playing the piano.或者:
I like to travel, to swim, and to play the piano.
因此,在写英语句子的时候,首先要辨认出句子的主语和谓语动词,然后要确保并列的意群要用同样的句法结构来写。并列可以更加清晰、有力、简练地表达出作者的观点。
二、句子的一致性
1.何为句子的一致性
句子的一致性是衡量句子是否有效的第一个标准,它指的是一个句子只能有一个中心思想,而且所表达的中心思想是完整的。
下列不一致的句子可以帮助我们更好地理解句子一致性的含义:
(1)句子意思表达不完整
× The speech was given in such an amazing way.
√ The speech was given in such an amazing way that everyone enjoyed it very much.
(2)句子的主从关系模糊
× We are going to visit Amy, and he is our American friend.
√ We are going to visit Amy who is our American friend.
(3)连接词使用不当
× The main reason she was absent was because she was ill.
√ The main reason she was absent was that she was ill.
(4)中心不明确
× I was watching a film last night. I suddenly found Mary sitting in front of me.
√ When I was watching a film last night, I suddenly found Mary sitting in front of me.
以上例子中的错误句不仔细琢磨可能根本看不出问题所在,因为它们的错误不在语法方面,所以说只是语法正确并不能产生好的句子,一致性才是有效句的一个重要标准。
2.与汉语句子一致性的比较以及汉语对英语的负迁移
由于汉语是一种主题突出型的语言,所以在汉语写作中,只要一个段落的句与句之间说的是同一主题,就可以中间没有任何连接词,“一逗到底”,而读者也能够理解其逻辑关系。也就是说,汉语句子的一致性没有英语严格。如:
中文:王夫人道:“(人参)就是各位这边没了,你叫个人往你婆婆那里去问问,或是你珍大哥那里有,(你)寻些来,(你)凑合着给人家,(人家)吃好了,(你们)救人一命,(这)也是你们的好处。”(选自曹雪芹的《红楼梦》)
译文:“if we have none, send to your mother-in-law for some, or your Cousin Zhen's household may let us have what's needed. If you can save the young man's life that will be a good deed.”
这个例子中的8个分句之间都用了逗号,它们表达的是不同的意思,但围绕的是一件事,对读者而言,逻辑关系清晰可见。而英语译文却只有两句话,在每一个句子中,都加了主语、连词和代词使其在含义上具有一致性。
正是因为汉语句子成分之间的关系并不需要用某种语言形式来体现,所以中国学生在英语句子写作时容易犯句子不一致的错误。如:
中文:随着经济的快速发展,网络在中国人中越来越普及。
译文:Economy develops rapidly, and internet becomes popular among Chinese people.
这个汉语句子的两个部分之间虽然没有表逻辑关系的连词,但读者仍然能理解其表达的核心意思是“网络的普及”。但英语译句中的两个部分显然表达的是不同的事物,不是一个完整的观点,因此这个译句有不一致的问题。可改译为:
The internet has become popular as the result of the widely-used and inexpensive computers—the product of the rapid economic development.
这个译句中将“网络的普及”和“经济的快速发展”间隐含的关系清晰地表达在“由于电脑的普及及其价格的下降”这一短语上,从而使句子的核心集中在“网络”上。
中文:她出生于在上海,长在上海,她人比较胖。
译文:She, born and raised in Shanghai, is a rather fat woman.
虽然这个汉语句子中两个部分表达的是不相关的事情,但整个句子的核心只有一个,即“她”。而英语译句中的问题显而易见,“她出生于上海”和“她很胖”是完全无关的两个事情,将它们写在一个句子里不符合一致性原则。改译为:
She was born and raised in Shanghai. She is rather fat.
由此可见,确保每个句子表达的是一个完整的意思是中国学生在写英文句子一定要注意的问题。
三、句子的连贯性
连贯性指的是句子各个部分之间清晰、准确的排列组合。由于英语句子的含义主要取决于语序,所以句子成分的排列组合对正确表达观点尤为重要。一个连贯的句子清晰、易懂,因为词与词之间的衔接符合语法规则和用法。不连贯的句子很难懂,可能会有不同的解读方式。
1.如何写出连贯的英语句子
要写出连贯的句子,须使用一些起衔接手法,如指代、省略、替代、连词介词、关系副词、非谓语动词等。
(1)使用代词达到连贯性
代词有助于将作者表达的观点联系在一起,不管是一个句子里还是句与句之间都可以通过代词的衔接将观点完整、清晰地表达出来。起衔接作用的常用代词有:I、you、he、she、they、them、this、that、these、those、one、such以及it。
通过代词一方面可以避免句子内部或句与句之间不必要的重复,另一方面可以让作者简练地表达出观点。如:
If a student feels that a school rule is unjust, the student could lodge an appeal to the principal about the rule.
这句话给读者的感觉非常啰嗦,且不流畅,如若将重复的名词用代词替换,感觉就会不同:
If a student feels that a school rule is unjust, they could lodge an appeal to the principal about it.
(2)使用连词达到连贯性
连词可以将分句中表达的观点与句子其他成分中传达的信息衔接在一起,并表明它们之间的关系。连词的种类很多,详见本章有关用并列法和从属法扩展句子的内容。使用连词可以使句子更具逻辑性。比如:
He twisted his ankle. He fell down.
如果这两句话之间没有任何连词,其逻辑关系就不够明朗,读者就不知道到底哪句话是因,哪句话是果。
我们再来分析一段话,看看它是如何运用连词使段落更具连贯性的。
People should also like to be able to prevent the great destruction of property caused by earthquakes. After all, most of the people who die in earthquakes are killed by falling buildings. Therefore, building structures that can withstand the power of earthquakes is a major concern. Steel seems to be the best material, but not if it is welded to form a rigid structure. Many new structures are built with a new type of steel joint, an I-joint, which appears to be the most durable type of joint. These joints of steel can move without breaking. Also, to prevent property damage, architects now design buildings so that the building's columns are inserted deep into solid soil. In addition, many new house shave relatively light roofs and strong walls. Concrete pillars for highway bridges that previously only had steel rods inside are now enclosed in steel.(节选自《新视野大学英语读写教程(第二版)》第三册第六单元课文How to Prepare for Earthquakes)
上述黑体字都是一些连词或连接副词,它们使这段文字更具连贯性,也使得分句间以及句子之间的逻辑关系更加清晰。
(3)通过语法一致达到连贯性
语法一致主要指数、格、性和人称方面的一致,它是句子中两个或更多成分之间的一种语法关系,各个成分都具有某一相同特征,如:英语中第三人称单数的主语后要跟单数动词,而复数主语则跟复数动词。最常见的两种语法一致问题有:主谓一致问题以及代词一致问题。
1)主谓一致。
英语中,谓语动词的数应与其主语一致,主语为单数,谓语动词也要用单数,主语为复数,谓语动词用复数。以下是主谓一致须遵循的规则:
主语是复数,谓语动词也应该是复数,但主语是单数,谓语动词也要用单数。如:
① This vase is a genuine antique.
② Both students are excellent.
当主语是两个或更多由or衔接的单数名词或代词时,谓语用单数。如:
His mom or his dad sends him to school every day.
当主语由一个单数名词和复数名词组成,或者由either…or…、not only…but also…或neither…nor…衔接时,谓语动词的数应与离它近的主语的数相一致。如:
③ Not only you but also he is going swimming.
④ Neither he nor I am cooking.
“each、each one、either、neither、everyone、everybody、anybody、anyone、nobody、somebody、someone、no one” 都是单数代词,它们后面须接单数动词。如:
① Each of the oranges is sweet.
② Nobody likes this man.
③ Neither of them is allergic to nuts.
④ Something has to be done to prevent fire disasters.
由and衔接的两个主语如果指的是同一个人或物,谓语动词要用单数。如:
Love and right is a constant theme in history.
动名词和动词不定式短语作主语,谓语动词用单数。如:
⑩ Eating spicy food is difficult to him.
⑪ To study hard is what we should do.
主语后面跟有由“along with, together with等”引导的短语,这些短语不会影响到谓语的形式,即谓语动词的形式与它们之前的主语的人称和数相一致。如:
Nancy, together with her sisters, was injured in the accident.
倒装句中谓语动词的数与主语的数一致。如:
In the house are my friends.
集体名词(如:family、audience、public、team、committee、crew、herd、class、crowd、staff等)作主语,谓语动词可以用单数也可以用复数,取决于它在前后文中的含义是单数还是复数。如:
⑫ The class are all fond of volleyball.(class强调全班所有同学,而不是把它看作一个整体)
⑬ The family is quite happy on this holiday.(把“family”看作一个整体,而非强调每个人)
形式上是复数但含义上是单数的名词(如:physics、politics、economics等表示科目的词),谓语动词用单数。如:
Physics is difficult for many girls.
表示时间、距离、金钱、重量、体积、空间等意义的复数名词作主语,谓语动词常用单数形式。如:
⑭ Seven million dollars was missing in the bank.
⑮ Three hours of waiting is too much for me.
当“each…and each…、every…and every…、no…and no…、many a…and many a…”结构作主语时,谓语动词用单数形式。如:
Many a teacher and many a student is busy with the exam.
当百分数、分数后面加名词或代词作主语时,要根据这个名词或代词来决定谓语动词的单复数形式。如果是复数名词或代词,谓语动词用复数;如果是单数名词(或不可数名词)或代词,谓语动词用单数。如:
⑯ Fifty percent of the students in our school are girls.
⑰ Three-fourth of the surface of the earth is sea.
一些形式为复数,意义为单数的名词,如:trousers, pants, shorts, glasses, scissors等作主语时,谓语动词用复数;但当这类名词前有a pair of修饰时,谓语动词应用单数。如:
⑱ His new trousers were too short.
⑲ This pair of glasses was bought from Hongkong.
the number of…(……的数量)作主语时,谓语动词用单数,a number of…(许多……)修饰可数名词作主语时,谓语动词用复数。
⑳ The number of the students in our school increases every year.
㉑ A number of students are preparing for their final exam in the classroom.
在“one of+复数名词+定语从句” 结构中,定语从句中谓语动词的单复数应由它修饰的先行词的数来决定。如:
He is one of the students that have got high scores.
这个结构应区别于“the only one of+复数名词+定语从句”,这里的定语从句的谓语动词要用单数形式。如:
He is the only one of the students who attends the meeting every month.
2)代词与其先行词的一致。
代词须与它的先行词(即代词所指代的成分)在数和性上保持一致。如果先行词是复数,代词也应该用复数;如果先行词是单数,代词也应该用单数;如果先行词是男性,代词也应该用男性代词(he、his、him);如果先行词是女性,代词也应该用女性代词(she、her、hers);如果先行词既不是男性也不是女性,而是某个东西(如:book、desk等),代词应该用中性单数代词(it、its);如果先行词包括两性(everyone、anybody、nobody等),代词必须用中性复数代词(they、them、their)。下面是代词与其先行词保持一致须遵循的规则:
两个或更多由or连接的单数先行词应该用复数中性代词指代。如:
If my wife or my mother calls me, tell them I am out.
两个由and衔接的先行词用复数代词指代。如:
If my wife and my mother call me, tell them I am out.
one、everyone、everybody、nobody、each、either、neither、anyone、anybody、someone、somebody等不定代词在正式写作中用单数代词指代,在非正式写作中用复数代词指代。如:
Everyone is sticking to their own views in this discussion, and no one is compromising.
代词出现的位置不能让读者觉得既有可能指代甲,也有可能指代乙,即要避免指代不清的问题。如:
Lisa told Anna that she should attend the meeting tomorrow.
这句话中的“she”指代不清,让人觉得有可能指“Lisa”,有可能指“Anna”。可进行如下修改:
Lisa told Anna not to attend the meeting tomorrow.
避免代词与其所指代的先行代词的不一致。如:
When one goes shopping, you should avoid buying things unnecessary.
这句话主句的主语用了不定代词“one”,从句却用“you”指代“one”,显然不一致,“you”应改为“he”。
代词不可以指代动词、形容词或状语从句。如:
If you are expelled from the school, it will distress your parents.
这个句子中的“it”用来指代条件状语从句,是不恰当的,代词“it”并不能这么使用,应改为:
If you are expelled from the school, your parents will be distressed.
代词不能指代不明先行词。如:
Daily practice is necessary in ballet training; in fact, they are often as highly trained as athletes.
这句话中的“they”只能靠推测才能知道指代的是谁,因为前一个分句中并没有复数名词或代词,所以不应该使用代词,可改为:
Daily practice is necessary in ballet training; in fact, ballet performers are often as highly trained as athletes.
3)关系代词与其谓语动词的一致性。
定语从句中的动词必须与关系代词的先行词保持一致。如:
She decided to buy some candies, which are her daughters' favorite.
这个定语从句的谓语用了“are”,因为关系代词的先行词“candies”用了复数形式。
此外,关系代词要与紧挨它的先行词的数保持一致,而不是跟句中出现的位于先行词之前的其他名词或代词的数一致。如:
He visited one of the bookstores which were recommended by his teacher.
这句话中的定语从句谓语动词用了复数形式“were”,与其先行词“bookstores”一致,而不是和“one”一致。
根据以上论述,要写出连贯的句子须避免以下情况:
① 不要在不必要的情况下将关系紧密的词分开。如:
All the students are learning Chinese in this college.
这句话会让读者理解为“这所学院是学生学习汉语的唯一地方”,也许表达这句话的人的意思是“这所学院的所有学生都在学汉语”,如果是这样,“in this college”就应该放在主语“students”的后面,而不是放在句末作谓语动词的状语。
② 不要用指代不明的代词。如:
The mom said to her daughter that she could watch the Indian movie the next day.
这句话中的代词“she”会让我们不明白它到底指的是“mom”还是“daughter”,可进行如下修改:
The mom said to her daughter that she herself could watch the Indian movie tomorrow.或者
The mom thought that her daughter could watch the Indian movie tomorrow and said so to her.或者
The mom said to her daughter:“You could watch the Indian movie tomorrow.”或者
The mom said to her daughter:“I could watch the Indian movie tomorrow.”
③ 不要使用无依着修饰语(并不修饰句中任何成分或正确指代句中成分的片语或子句)或将修饰成分置于离被修饰词很远的位置。如:
Walking home from school, the fire engine came screeching(发出尖叫声)around the corner.
这句中的现在分词短语从结构上来看是修饰主句主语“the fire engine”,这显然逻辑不通,可以改为:
Walking home from school, I saw the fire engine come screeching around the corner.
再如:
The funny poster attracts everyone's eyes on the wall.
这句话中的“on the wall”很显然是修饰“poster”的,须调整位置到poster之后,不应该放在最后。
④ 人称和数不要做不必要或令人迷惑的转换。如:
The students who want to join the club are asked to sign your name on this piece of paper.
这句中的代词“your”跟主语“the students”不符,应改为“their”,并将name变为复数“names”。
⑤ 语态、时态和语气不要做不必要的转换。如:
The earthquake destroyed many buildings and a lot of people were injured.
这句话从语法上讲并没有错误,但语态的转换使它看起来不够流畅,可改为:
The earthquake destroyed many buildings and injured a lot of people.或者
In the earthquake many buildings were destroyed and a lot of people injured.
⑥ 并列成分间不要用不同的语言形式。如:
It's believed that one's action speaks louder than what one says.
这句话中的“one's action”和“what one says”为并列成分,但一个是名词短语一个是从句,使得整个句子读起来怪怪的,可改为:
It's believed that one's action speaks louder than one's words.或者
It's believed that what one does speaks louder than what one says.
简而言之,句子的连贯性对准确、清晰地表达观点有非常重要的作用,所以一定要养成回读所写句子的习惯,检查其连贯性并做出必要的修改。
2.与汉语句子连贯性的比较以及汉语对英语的负迁移
(1)汉语句子缺乏连词的使用
大多数语言学家认为汉语属于“意合”语言,而英语属于“形合”语言。意合指句子之间常靠内部的逻辑关系联系在一起,而非语言形式(如连词);而形合指句与句之间往往靠各种语言形式紧密结合。因此,汉语句子构建的一般原则就是“积字成句,积句成章”。如:
知己知彼,百战不殆;不知彼而知己,一胜一负;不知己不知彼,每战必殆。
这个句子没有使用任何连词,但它的意思非常明了,中国读者能理解它所表达的逻辑关系。如果给这句话加上连词,就会变得很啰嗦,不够简练。如:
(若)知己(而又)知彼,(则)百战不殆;(若)不知彼而知己,(则)(将)一胜(及)一负;(若)不知己(而又)不知彼,(则)每战(将)必殆。
正因为英语和汉语在连词使用上的差异,很多中国学生在英语写作中都会忘记在句子之间或句子内部使用必要的连词,从而导致错误,其中最典型的错误之一就是流水句。在英语中,如果两个分句可以独立成句,那么它们之间不可以使用逗号来衔接,而应该用句号,如果它们之间使用了逗号,那它就是一个流水句。但是,在汉语中,两个或多个分句,甚至一个段落都可以不用连词,意群之间只用逗号来衔接(即一逗到底),而读者依然可以明白句与句之间的逻辑关系。因此,中国学生会把汉语的这一特征错误地运用到英语写作中,出现如下错误:
Mr. Smith is a great teacher, he always explains things very clearly.
可改为:
Mr. Smith is a great teacher; he always explains things very clearly.或者
Mr. Smith is a great teacher. He always explains things very clearly.
(2)汉语句子缺乏代词的使用
代词在汉语句子中的使用没有在英语中广泛,以下面两个句子为例:
下车的时候,他看到了那个女孩。
译文:When he was getting off the bus, he saw the girl.
他轻轻地把手放在她肩膀上,好像表示安慰。
译文:He put his hand lightly on her shoulder as if to comfort her.
通过比较以上两组句子的中文和英文,我们发现汉语句子中代词的使用频率确实不及英语,物主代词一般都会省略,但在英语中,这样的物主代词必须保留。这直接导致中国学生在写英文句子的时候忽略必要的代词。如:
中文:每个学生都得做家庭作业。
错误译文:Every student is supposed to do homework.
这个汉语句子中没有代词,所以不少中国学生在翻译这句话的时候,会漏掉代词,正确译文如下:
Every student is supposed to do his homework.
(3)汉语通过重复来实现连贯性
英语追求简练,所以用省略来实现连贯,而汉语则更倾向于通过重复来实现连贯。这一差异使中国学生在将中文句子翻译为英文时,将中文中重复的词或短语原封不动地翻译为相应的英文。如:
中文:想说就说,想做就做,不要在乎别人的看法。
译文:Talk as you like and do as you like. Don't care others' views.
这个译文将汉语中重复的词全都一一翻译出来,虽然没有语法错误,可是不符合英语的简练原则,可改为:
Talk and do as you like. Don't care others' views.
(4)汉语句子没有主谓和人称一致
汉语是一种没有曲折变化的语言,所以没有主谓一致原则。汉语的这一特点直接导致中国学生英文写作中出现主谓不一致的问题,他们要么在复数主语后使用单数动词,或者在单数主语后使用复数动词。如:
He hate playing games with them.(错误)
He hates playing games with them.(正确)
They hates playing games with him.(错误)
They hate playing games with him.(正确)
关于人称的一致性问题,虽然汉语中也有男“他”,女“她”及无性代词“它”之分,也注重代词与其先行词在人称和性方面的一致性,但是这三个代词在汉语中发音相同,均为“ta”。也就是说,只有当学生需要写的时候,他们才会考虑该用哪一个“ta”,其他情况下,他们只需要发“ta”的音即可。这就使得中国学生在英语写作中会忽略人称代词与其先行词的一致性问题,写出如下错误句子:
His daughter is 5 years old and he is very cute.
应改为:
His daughter is 5 years old and she is very cute.
此外,在汉语中,如果用一个句子去修饰一个词,那么对这个句子是没有语法要求的,也不需要用关系代词,这就使得中国学生在写英文句子时,忽略关系代词与其谓语的一致性问题。比如,中国学生可能会写出如下句子:
This doctor suggests that we do some sports which is good to our health, like swimming and jogging.
这个句子中的定语从句修饰的是“sports”,关系代词指的就是这个复数名词,所以谓语动词也应该用复数,应改为:
This doctor suggests that we do some sports which are good to our health, like swimming and jogging.